Synthetic fuel and method and apparatus for producing same

Abstract

Provided herein are systems and methods for converting CO2 and reducing gases, such as H2 or hydrocarbons, to mixtures of paraffins and aromatics suitable for use as aviation fuels.

Description

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0002] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 409,110 filed on September 22, 2022; and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 527,713 filed on July 19, 2023; the entire contents of each of these U.S. Provisional Patent Applications are incorporated herein by reference. Background Art

[0003] As atmospheric CO2 concentrations increase, it is advantageous to develop technologies to remove or mitigate CO2 emissions. Therefore, it has become imperative to develop transportation technologies (such as electric vehicles) that provide reduced CO2 emissions. However, the development of electric aircraft, especially commercial electric aircraft, is problematic due to the low energy density of the required batteries. Therefore, there is still a need to develop sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs), and currently available technologies will not meet market needs.

[0004] At present, jet fuel (Jet-A) is composed of normal paraffins, isoparaffins, cycloparaffins and aromatics extracted from crude oil. In order to produce SAF that can directly replace Jet-A, SAF must match the current composition derived from crude oil of Jet-A. Current SAF production technology involves preparing SAF from vegetable oil, animal fat and waste oil. However, SAF prepared by these methods mainly contains paraffins and does not have enough cycloparaffins and aromatics to directly replace Jet-A derived from crude oil. Therefore, it is necessary to produce a technology for SAF, which can directly replace Jet-A derived from crude oil. Summary of the invention

[0005] In certain aspects, provided herein is a system for producing aviation fuel, the system comprising:

[0006] first reducing gas feed

[10] ;

[0007] A first carbon source feed

[11] ;

[0008] a paraffin reactor

[25] , the paraffin reactor comprising a paraffin catalyst, the paraffin reactor having a first reducing gas feed inlet

[23] , a first carbon source inlet

[23] and a paraffin product outlet

[27] , wherein the first reducing gas feed is coupled to the first reducing gas feed inlet, and the first carbon source feed is coupled to the first carbon source feed inlet;

[0009] Second reducing gas feed

[10] ;

[0010] Second carbon source feed

[11] ;

[0011] an aromatic reactor

[31] , the aromatic reactor comprising an aromatic catalyst, the aromatic reactor having a second reducing gas feed inlet

[37] , a second carbon source inlet

[37] , and an aromatic product outlet

[33] , wherein the second reducing gas feed is coupled to the second reducing gas feed inlet, and the second carbon source feed is coupled to the second carbon source feed inlet; and

[0012] A blender having an alkane product inlet

[28] , an aromatic product inlet

[35] and a blended product outlet

[39] , wherein the alkane product outlet from the alkane reactor is coupled to the alkane product inlet of the blender, and the aromatic product outlet from the alkane reactor is coupled to the aromatic product inlet of the blender.

[0013] In certain embodiments, the system further comprises a high pressure separator

[40] having a blended product inlet

[39] , optionally an HP recycle gas outlet

[41] , and an HP separated product outlet

[45] , wherein the blended product outlet of the blender is coupled to the blended product inlet of the high pressure separator.

[0014] In another embodiment, the system further comprises a low pressure separator

[46] having an HP separated product inlet

[45] , optionally an LP recycle gas outlet

[47] and an LP separated product outlet

[53] , wherein the HP separated product outlet of the high pressure separator is coupled to the HP separated product inlet of the low pressure separator.

[0015] In still other embodiments, the system further comprises a first separator

[57] having a product inlet

[56] separated by LP, a C 1-4 Hydrocarbon export

[58] and C 5+ A hydrocarbon outlet

[59] , wherein the LP separated product outlet of the low pressure separator is coupled to the LP separated product inlet of the first separator.

[0016] In certain embodiments, the system further comprises a second separator

[60] , the second separator having a C 5+ Hydrocarbon inlet

[59] , C 5-8 Hydrocarbon export

[62] , C 16+ Hydrocarbon export

[61] and C 9-15 hydrocarbon outlet

[63] , wherein the C 5+ The hydrocarbon outlet is coupled to the C 5+ Hydrocarbon inlet.

[0017] In further embodiments, the system further comprises:

[0018] a third reducing gas feed [5]; and

[0019] An isomerization reactor

[64] , the isomerization reactor comprising an isomerization catalyst, the isomerization reactor having a third reducing gas feed inlet [not shown], C 9-15 a hydrocarbon inlet

[63] and an isomerized product outlet

[65] , wherein the third reducing gas feed is coupled to the third reducing gas feed inlet, and the C 9-15 The hydrocarbon outlet is coupled to the C 9-15 Hydrocarbon inlet.

[0020] In yet other embodiments, the system further comprises a third separator

[66] having an isomerized product inlet

[65] , a first recycle gas outlet

[75] , a C 16+ a hydrocarbon outlet

[68] and a purified aviation fuel outlet

[67] , wherein the isomerized product outlet of the isomerization reactor is coupled to the isomerized product inlet of the third separator.

[0021] In a further aspect, provided herein is a method for converting a carbon source gas and a reducing gas into aviation fuel, the method comprising:

[0022] contacting a first reducing gas and a first carbon source gas with a paraffin catalyst to provide a paraffin product mixture comprising one or more paraffins;

[0023] contacting a second reducing gas and a second carbon source gas with an aromatic catalyst to provide an aromatic product mixture comprising one or more aromatic hydrocarbons and / or cycloalkanes;

[0024] The paraffinic product mixture and the aromatic product mixture are blended to provide a crude product mixture.

[0025] In certain embodiments, the method further comprises a first separation step, wherein the

[0026] The first separation comprises separating the degassed crude product mixture into:

[0027] Contains C 1-4 a first lower carbon fraction of hydrocarbons; and

[0028] Contains C 5-8 Hydrocarbon, C 9-15 Hydrocarbons and C 16+ The first higher carbon fraction of hydrocarbons.

[0029] In further embodiments, the method further comprises a second separation step, wherein the second separation comprises separating the first higher carbon fraction into:

[0030] Contains the C 5-8 The second lower carbon fraction of hydrocarbons;

[0031] Contains the C 9-15 said purified product mixture of hydrocarbons; and

[0032] Contains the C 16+ The second higher carbon fraction of hydrocarbons.

[0033] In certain embodiments, the method further comprises contacting the purified product mixture and a third reducing gas with an isomerization catalyst to provide an isomerized product mixture, the isomerized product mixture comprising:

[0034] Another C 1-8 hydrocarbon;

[0035] Another C 9-15 hydrocarbons, the additional C 9-15 Hydrocarbons include straight chain alkanes, branched chain alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatics, and cycloparaffins; and

[0036] Another C 16+ hydrocarbon.

[0037] In certain embodiments, the method further comprises a third separation, wherein the third separation comprises separating the isomerized product mixture into:

[0038] Contains the additional C 1-8 a first recycle gas mixture of hydrocarbons;

[0039] Contains the additional C 16+ a third higher carbon fraction of hydrocarbons; and

[0040] Contains the additional C 9-15 A purified aviation fuel of hydrocarbons, the additional C 9-15 Hydrocarbons include straight chain alkanes, branched chain alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons, and cycloparaffins.

[0041] In certain aspects, provided herein are fuel compositions comprising: BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0042] Figure 1 An exemplary process flow diagram for the production of SAF that can directly replace Jet-A derived from crude oil, made from CO2 and reducing gas, is shown.

[0043] Figure 2An exemplary process flow diagram for producing fuel from a reducing gas (eg, H 2 ) and a carbon source gas (eg, CO 2 ) is shown.

[0044] Figure 3 The third reducing gas feed inlet [5], C 9-15 An exemplary isomerization reactor

[64] with a hydrocarbon inlet

[63] and an isomerized product outlet

[65] .

[0045] Figure 4 An exemplary embodiment is shown with a fourth reducing gas feed inlet [6], a first C 16+ Hydrocarbon inlet

[61] , second C 16+ A hydrocracking reactor

[69] having a hydrocarbon inlet

[68] and a hydrocracked product outlet

[70] .

[0046] Figure 5 is a graph showing C from an exemplary CO2 to paraffin process of the present disclosure. 10-16 Plot of the carbon number distribution of the product fractions.

[0047] Figure 6 is a graph showing C from an exemplary CO2 to paraffin process of the present disclosure. 10-16 Plot of the carbon number distribution of the product fractions.

[0048] Figure 7 is a graph showing C from an exemplary CO2 to paraffin process of the present disclosure. 10-16 Plot of the carbon number distribution of the product fractions. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0049] Aviation fuels typically contain four classes of hydrocarbon compounds: normal (straight chain) alkanes, iso-alkanes (branched chains), cycloalkanes, and aromatics. The most commonly used are blends of Jet A and Jet A-1 fuels to have a composition that conforms to the specifications defined by ASTM International (formerly the American Society of Testing and Materials) standard D1655. The ASTM D1655 standard specification for aviation turbine fuels includes physical and chemical property tests that must be met for Jet A or Jet A-1 used in aircraft. The standard also includes concentration limits for acidic and sulfur-containing compounds, as well as minimum and maximum concentrations of aromatic hydrocarbons, and references the ASTM standard tests for those limits. Aromatics are necessary for materials compatible with O-rings in existing turbine engines, but are lacking in the blended components of most synthetically produced aviation fuels.

[0050] Among aromatic hydrocarbons, there is no substantial difference between monocyclic aromatics and bicyclic aromatic compounds (meaning compounds containing two fused aromatic rings) in terms of the effectiveness of O-ring compatibility, and petroleum-derived jet fuels typically contain both. ASTM D1655 also does not distinguish between monocyclic and bicyclic aromatic compounds. However, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (meaning compounds containing two or more fused aromatic rings) (e.g., naphthalene) produce much greater amounts of harmful particulate emissions when burned than their monocyclic counterparts. For example, n-butylbenzene produces about 62% naphthalene soot when burned. Therefore, it is advantageous for synthetic Jet A to contain monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons rather than polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

[0051] In the process of synthesizing synthetic blending components for sustainable aviation fuel, Fischer-Tropsch (FT) is generally used because the FT is a mature process for converting synthesis gas (synthesis gas) of a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (syngas) into paraffins that has been in operation since the early 20th century. The product liquid from FT, namely paraffin kerosene synthesized by Fischer-Tropsch hydroprocessing (FT-SPK) is the subject of Appendix A1 of ASTM D7566, the first approved appendix to synthetic blending components for SAF. This paraffin kerosene mainly contains normal paraffins and iso-paraffins, with little or no cycloalkanes or aromatics. Therefore, FT-SPK must be blended with the corresponding conventional Jet A to achieve the desired concentration of cyclic compounds to meet the ASTM D1655 specification. Through the ASTM D4054 process, an additional appendix to ASTM D7566 for synthetic blending components that contribute to fully formulated Jet A has been approved.

[0052] In certain aspects, the present disclosure describes a fully formulated Jet A prepared synthetically from carbon dioxide. As described herein, the production process assembles aromatic compounds from carbon dioxide. This bottom-up process design significantly reduces the synthetic accessibility of larger molecules. Therefore, the synthetic Jet A disclosed in the present invention contains less polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons than Jet A prepared from petroleum-derived components. In certain embodiments, the synthetic Jet A of the present disclosure contains less than about 1 wt % polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

[0053] The compositions described herein also contain much less sulfur-containing species than comparable fossil fuels, in certain embodiments less than 1 ppm. This is achieved by thermochemically synthesizing jet fuel from CO2 and H2.

[0054] These two characteristics of the fuels described herein (low PAH and sulfur content) are difficult or impossible to achieve with petroleum-derived fuels because those fuels are prepared by conventional processes that ultimately retain various characteristic compounds from the petroleum source, e.g., sulfur species and PAHs, which are very expensive or impossible to completely remove from the final fuel product.

[0055] Also provided herein are systems and methods for producing SAF, which in certain embodiments can directly replace Jet-A made from petroleum-derived components, CO2, and renewable energy. Figure 1 In the system shown in FIG. 1 , CO2 is supplied to a two-tube reactor system together with hydrogen or another reducing gas. After optional combination with a recycle gas, the combined feed is divided into two streams. One stream passes through a tube reactor 1 in which a catalyst (such as iron and / or cobalt oxide) is on a support (such as SiO2, alumina, zeolite, TiO2); In2O3 / HZSM-5; or FeO2-loaded x / HZSM-5. CO2 and hydrogen in reactor 1 are converted into hydrocarbons, mainly paraffins. Other suitable paraffin catalysts are described further below. Another stream passes through tubular reactor 2, in which the catalyst (CuZnAlO x / HZSM-5、ZnCr2O4 / ZSM-5、ZnAlO x / HZSM-5 or ZnZrO / HZSM-5) to convert CO2 and hydrogen into hydrocarbons, mainly aromatics. Other suitable aromatic catalysts will be further described below. The reactor effluents from reactor 1 and reactor 2 are combined before being sent to high-pressure and low-pressure separators. Unconverted CO2 and H2, plus the CO produced in reactor 1 and reactor 2, are optionally recycled to reactor 1 and reactor 2.

[0056] The liquid stream from the low pressure separator is sent to a stabilizer to remove light hydrocarbons such as LPG. The bottom liquid from the stabilizer is sent to a three-stream separator which separates the liquid into mid-range hydrocarbons (C 5-10), kerosene (as a center fraction) and diesel and heavy fractions. The center fraction is sent to a fixed bed reactor, in which paraffin isomerization and aromatic hydrogenation occur. Hydrogen is added to this isomerization and hydrogenation reactor. A catalyst (such as Pd or Pt on a zeolite) will be loaded into the reactor. In this reactor, a portion of normal paraffins will be converted into isoparaffins, and a portion of aromatics will be converted into cycloparaffins to meet the product ratio required for the intended use (e.g., aviation fuel directly put in). The specific chlorine of aromatics and paraffins entering the reactor is adjusted and fixed by the size of reactor 1 and reactor 2 and their corresponding feed rates, which can be adjusted as needed to provide the desired product characteristics. A separator is used after the isomerization-hydrogenation reactor to separate unconverted hydrogen and liquid products. Finally, a product column is installed to obtain a fraction of the desired product (e.g., aviation fuel directly put in). The light hydrocarbons produced will be sent back to the stabilizer, and the heavy hydrocarbons will be directed to the hydrocracking unit.

[0057] The diesel and heavy hydrocarbons from the three-stream separator are sent to a low-pressure hydrocracking reactor (e.g., operated at <1000 psig) together with the heavy products produced by isomerization-hydrogenation to convert the heavy hydrocarbons and diesel into the desired use (e.g., direct-input aviation fuel). The operation of the reactor requires a hydrocracking catalyst with mild operating conditions. Hydrogen will be added to the hydrocracking reactor. A separator is required after the reactor to separate the unconverted hydrogen and liquid products. A distillation column is installed after the separator, in which the difficult-to-convert heavy products are separated from the lighter hydrocarbons, which can be recycled to the stabilizer.

[0058] The process described above can produce aviation fuel that can directly replace Jet-A derived from crude oil because its ratio of iso-paraffins to normal paraffins and aromatics to cycloparaffins can be controlled in the isomerization / hydrogenation reactor, and the ratio of paraffins to aromatics can be adjusted by controlling the relative sizes of Reactor 1 and Reactor 2. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the flexibility of this system design allows these ratios to be adapted to other uses as desired. A particular advantage of the present system and method is that the aromatics and paraffins can be combined prior to purification, thereby significantly saving capital expenditures.

[0059] Fuel composition

[0060] In some aspects, the present disclosure provides systems and methods for producing fuel compositions from carbon source gases (e.g., CO2) and reducing gases (e.g., H2). The fuel compositions produced by these systems and / or methods, e.g., compositions described below, show certain unique properties and compositional characteristics. For example, these compositions have low total sulfur contents because the compositions (or their main components) are produced by CO2 synthesis. As another example, the systems and methods disclosed herein for preparing aromatic components are very advantageous for producing monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, but are disadvantageous for producing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. These compositional characteristics (e.g., low sulfur content and low polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon content) are the results of the systems and methods described herein, and are advantageous compared to conventional (petroleum-derived) fuels.

[0061] In some aspects, provided herein are fuel compositions comprising:

[0062] Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons;

[0063] Cycloalkanes;

[0064] normal paraffins; and

[0065] Isoparaffins;

[0066] wherein the composition comprises less than about 1 wt % polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

[0067] In certain embodiments, the composition comprises less than about 5wt% of tetralin and indanes. In further embodiments, the composition comprises less than about 1wt% of tetralin and indanes. In some embodiments, the composition comprises 0wt% to about 5wt% of tetralin and indanes. In further embodiments, the composition comprises 0wt% to about 1wt% of tetralin and indanes. In certain preferred embodiments, the composition does not substantially comprise tetralin and indanes.

[0068] In some embodiments, the composition comprises less than about 0.5 wt % of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In other embodiments, the composition comprises 0 wt % to about 0.5 wt % of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In yet other embodiments, the composition comprises about 0.1 wt % to about 1 wt % of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In yet other embodiments, the composition comprises about 0.1 wt % or less, about 0.2 wt % or less, about 0.3 wt % or less, about 0.4 wt % or less, or about 0.5 wt % or less of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In preferred embodiments, the composition comprises substantially no polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, for example, as determined by GC-MS.

[0069] In certain preferred embodiments, substantially all of the aromatic compounds present in the fuel compositions of the present disclosure are single ring aromatics.

[0070] In certain embodiments, the composition comprises about 5 wt % to about 25 wt % of monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In other embodiments, the composition comprises about 8 wt % to about 15 wt % of monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In yet other embodiments, the composition comprises about 8 wt %, about 9 wt %, about 10 wt %, about 11 wt %, about 12 wt %, about 13 wt % or about 14 wt % of monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In certain preferred embodiments, the composition comprises about 14.5 wt % of monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

[0071] In certain embodiments, the composition comprises about 15wt% to about 65wt% of cycloalkanes. In other embodiments, the composition comprises about 15wt% to about 35wt% of cycloalkanes. In yet other embodiments, the composition comprises about 15wt%, about 20wt%, about 25wt%, about 30wt% or about 35wt% of cycloalkanes. In certain preferred embodiments, the composition comprises about 29wt% of cycloalkanes.

[0072] In certain embodiments, the composition comprises from about 5 wt% to about 40 wt% of isoparaffins. In other embodiments, the composition comprises from about 5 wt% to about 15 wt% of isoparaffins. In yet other embodiments, the composition comprises from about 5 wt%, about 7 wt%, about 9 wt%, about 11 wt%, about 13 wt% or about 15 wt% of isoparaffins. In certain preferred embodiments, the composition comprises about 8.8 wt% of isoparaffins.

[0073] In certain preferred embodiments, the composition complies with ASTM D4054-Class 1.

[0074] In some embodiments, the total acidity of the composition is less than about 0.10 mg KOH / g. In other embodiments, the total acidity of the composition is about 0.05 mg KOH / g to about 0.10 mg KOH / g. In yet other embodiments, the total acidity of the composition is about 0.05 mg KOH / g, about 0.06 mg KOH / g, about 0.07 mg KOH / g, about 0.08 mg KOH / g, about 0.09 mg KOH / g, or about 0.10 mg KOH / g. In certain preferred embodiments, the total acidity of the composition is about 0.07 mg KOH / g.

[0075] In certain embodiments, the composition comprises less than about 0.3 wt% total sulfur, for example, as measured by ASTM D2622. In some embodiments, the composition comprises less than about 1 ppm of sulfur-containing impurities. In certain embodiments, the composition substantially does not comprise sulfur-containing impurities. In certain embodiments, the composition comprises less than about 0.003 wt% of mercaptan sulfur. In certain preferred embodiments, the composition comprises about 0 wt% of mercaptan sulfur, for example, as measured by ASTM D3227.

[0076] In some embodiments, the flash point of the composition is at least about 38°C. In other embodiments, the flash point of the composition is about 38°C to about 370°C. In yet other embodiments, the flash point of the composition is about 38°C to about 50°C. In still other embodiments, the flash point of the composition is about 38°C, about 39°C, about 40°C, about 41°C, about 42°C, about 43°C, about 44°C, about 45°C, about 46°C, about 47°C, about 48°C, about 49°C, or about 50°C. In certain preferred embodiments, the flash point of the composition is about 42°C.

[0077] In certain embodiments, the composition has a density of about 775 kg / m at 15°C. 3 About 840kg / m 3 In other embodiments, the composition has a density of about 775 kg / m at 15°C. 3 About 785kg / m 3 In certain embodiments, the composition has a density of about 775 kg / m at 15°C. 3 , about 778kg / m 3 , about 780kg / m 3 , about 782kg / m 3 or about 785kg / m 3 In certain preferred embodiments, the density of the composition at 15°C is about 780 kg / m 3 .

[0078] In certain embodiments, the freezing point of the composition is below about -40°C. In further embodiments, the freezing point of the composition is about -70°C to about -40°C. In yet further embodiments, the freezing point of the composition is about -70°C, about -65°C, about -60°C, about -55°C, about -50°C, about -45°C, or about -40°C. In certain preferred embodiments, the freezing point of the composition is about -51°C.

[0079] In some embodiments, the viscosity of the composition at -20°C is less than about 8.0 cSt. In certain embodiments, the viscosity of the composition at -40°C is less than about 12 square millimeters per second. In certain preferred embodiments, the viscosity of the composition at -20°C is about 3.2 square millimeters per second.

[0080] In certain embodiments, the net heat of combustion of the composition is at least about 42.8 MJ / kg. In other embodiments, the net heat of combustion of the composition is about 42.8 MJ / kg to about 51 MJ / kg. In yet other embodiments, the net heat of combustion of the composition is about 42.8 MJ / kg, about 43.4 MJ / kg, about 45 MJ / kg, about 47 MJ / kg, about 49 MJ / kg, or about 51 MJ / kg. In certain preferred embodiments, the net heat of combustion of the composition is about 43.4 MJ / kg.

[0081] In certain embodiments, the smoke point of the composition is at least about 18 mm. In other embodiments, the smoke point of the composition is at least about 25 mm. In yet other embodiments, the smoke point of the composition is about 25 mm to about 45 mm. In still other embodiments, the smoke point of the composition is about 25 mm, about 30 mm, about 35 mm, about 40 mm, or about 45 mm. In certain preferred embodiments, the smoke point of the composition is about 36 mm.

[0082] In some embodiments, the filter pressure drop of the composition is less than about 25 mm Hg. In other embodiments, the filter pressure drop of the composition is 0 mm Hg to about 25 mm Hg. In certain preferred embodiments, the filter pressure drop of the composition is about 0 mm Hg.

[0083] In certain embodiments, the composition has a tube deposit rating of less than about 3, with substantially no peacock blue or off-color deposits. In certain preferred embodiments, the composition has a tube deposit rating of 1 VTR color code.

[0084] In certain embodiments, the composition has a lubricity of less than about 0.85 mm wear scar diameter (WSD). In other embodiments, the composition has a lubricity of 0 mm WSD to about 0.85 mm WSD. In certain preferred embodiments, the composition has a lubricity of about 0.52 mm WSD.

[0085] In certain embodiments, the composition complies with ASTM D1655.

[0086] In certain preferred embodiments, the monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are not derived from petroleum. In certain preferred embodiments, the monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are derived from CO2. In certain preferred embodiments, the monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, the cycloalkanes, the normal paraffins, and the isoparaffins are not derived from petroleum. In certain preferred embodiments, the monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, the cycloalkanes, the normal paraffins, and the isoparaffins are derived from CO2.

[0087] In certain embodiments, the composition further comprises at least one fuel additive.

[0088] Systems for aviation fuel production

[0089] In certain aspects, the present invention provides a system for converting a carbon source gas and a reducing gas into aviation fuel. In the present disclosure, certain components of these systems are described as being "coupled" to each other. As will be understood, the term "coupled" as used herein describes components that are operably connected to each other, but does not exclude the presence of intermediate components between those components that are referred to as being coupled to each other. Additionally, as will be understood, various system components are described as "having" certain features. For example, in certain embodiments, a paraffin reactor

[25] is described as having a first reducing gas feed inlet

[23] , a first carbon source inlet

[23] , and a paraffin product outlet

[27] . Such descriptions do not exclude, and specifically contemplate the presence of additional features, such as inlets, outlets, valves, control concentrations, measuring devices, heating and / or cooling systems, etc. Additionally, in the system of the present disclosure, certain components are described as having one or more outlets or inlets. Such outlets and inlets may represent separate structural elements, or may be appropriately combined into a single inlet or outlet. One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that once the key features and operating conditions of a system such as those described herein are understood, the detailed design and operation of such a system involves many choices, such as specific reagent flows, separation steps, etc. Although the present disclosure provides a number of specific embodiments, any suitable combination of these design choices may be made.

[0090] Further, various systems and methods of the present disclosure sometimes involve having a particular carbon number (e.g., C X-Y ) fractions. As will be appreciated, these carbon numbers refer to the carbon composition of the bulk fraction, but the fractions may include additional components having carbon numbers higher or lower than those indicated. Separators capable of producing these fractions are well known in the art and can be adjusted as necessary to provide a suitable product mixture as disclosed herein, or as desired by the operator. Certain components of the system are indicated by numbers in parentheses (i.e., "

[10] ") corresponding to the components of the system. Figure 1 Components shown in .

[0091] In certain aspects, provided herein is a system for producing aviation fuel, the system comprising:

[0092] first reducing gas feed

[10] ;

[0093] A first carbon source feed

[11] ;

[0094] a paraffin reactor

[24] , the paraffin reactor comprising a paraffin catalyst, the paraffin reactor having a first reducing gas feed inlet

[23] , a first carbon source inlet

[23] and a paraffin product outlet

[27] , wherein the first reducing gas feed is coupled to the first reducing gas feed inlet, and the first carbon source feed is coupled to the first carbon source feed inlet;

[0095] Second reducing gas feed

[10] ;

[0096] Second carbon source feed

[11] ;

[0097] an aromatic reactor

[31] , the aromatic reactor comprising an aromatic catalyst, the aromatic reactor having a second reducing gas feed inlet

[37] , a second carbon source inlet

[37] , and an aromatic product outlet

[33] , wherein the second reducing gas feed is coupled to the second reducing gas feed inlet, and the second carbon source feed is coupled to the second carbon source feed inlet; and

[0098] A blender

[20] having an alkane product inlet

[28] , an aromatic product inlet

[35] and a blended product outlet

[39] , wherein the alkane product outlet from the alkane reactor is coupled to the alkane product inlet of the blender, and the aromatic product outlet from the aromatic reactor is coupled to the aromatic product inlet of the blender.

[0099] In certain embodiments, the system further comprises a high pressure separator

[40] having a blended product inlet

[39] , optionally an HP recycle gas outlet

[41] , and an HP separated product outlet

[45] , wherein the blended product outlet of the blender is coupled to the blended product inlet of the high pressure separator. In further embodiments, the HP recycle gas outlet, when present, is coupled to the first reducing gas feed, the second reducing gas feed, the first carbon source feed, and / or the second carbon source feed.

[0100] In further embodiments, the system further comprises a low pressure separator

[46] having an HP separated product inlet

[45] , optionally an LP recycle gas outlet

[47] , and an LP separated product outlet

[53] , wherein the HP separated product outlet of the high pressure separator is coupled to the HP separated product inlet of the low pressure separator. In yet further embodiments, the LP recycle gas outlet, when present, is coupled to one or more of the first reducing gas feed, the second reducing gas feed, the first carbon source feed, and the second carbon source feed.

[0101] In still other embodiments, the system further comprises a first separator

[57] having a product inlet

[56] separated by LP, a C 1-4 Hydrocarbon export

[58] and C 5+ A hydrocarbon outlet

[59] , wherein the LP separated product outlet of the low pressure separator is coupled to the LP separated product inlet of the first separator.

[0102] In certain embodiments, the system further comprises a second separator

[60] , the second separator having a C 5+ Hydrocarbon inlet

[59] , C 5-8 Hydrocarbon export

[62] , C 16 --Hydrocarbon export

[61] and C 9-15 hydrocarbon outlet

[63] , wherein the C 5+ The hydrocarbon outlet is coupled to the C 5+ Hydrocarbon inlet.

[0103] In further embodiments, the system further comprises:

[0104] a third reducing gas feed [5]; and

[0105] An isomerization reactor

[64] , the isomerization reactor comprising an isomerization catalyst, the isomerization reactor having a third reducing gas feed inlet, a C 9-15 a hydrocarbon inlet

[63] and an isomerized product outlet

[65] , wherein the third reducing gas feed is coupled to the third reducing gas feed inlet, and the C 9-15 The hydrocarbon outlet is coupled to the C 9-15 Hydrocarbon inlet.

[0106] In yet other embodiments, the system further comprises a third separator

[66] having an isomerized product inlet

[65] , a first recycle gas outlet

[75] , a C 16+a hydrocarbon outlet

[68] and a purified aviation fuel outlet

[67] , wherein the isomerized product outlet of the isomerization reactor is coupled to the isomerized product inlet of the third separator. In still further embodiments, the first recycle gas outlet

[74] is coupled to the LP separated product inlet

[56] of the first separator.

[0107] In certain embodiments, the system further comprises:

[0108] a fourth reducing gas feed [6]; and

[0109] A hydrocracking reactor

[69] , the hydrocracking reactor comprising a hydrocracking catalyst, the hydrocracking reactor having a fourth reducing gas feed inlet, a first C 16+ Hydrocarbon inlet

[61] , second C 16+ a hydrocarbon inlet

[68] and a hydrocracked product outlet

[70] , wherein the fourth reducing gas feed is coupled to the fourth reducing gas feed inlet, the C 16+ The hydrocarbon outlet is coupled to the first C 16+ The hydrocarbon inlet, and the C of the third separator 16+ The hydrocarbon outlet is coupled to the second C 16+ Hydrocarbon inlet.

[0110] In other embodiments, the system further comprises a fourth separator

[71] having a hydrocracked product inlet

[70] , a second recycle gas outlet

[73] and a C 18+ A hydrocarbon outlet

[72] , wherein the hydrocracked product outlet of the hydrocracking reactor is coupled to the hydrocracked product inlet of the third separator. In yet further embodiments, the second recycle gas outlet

[73] is coupled to the LP separated product inlet [55 / 56] of the first separator.

[0111] In still further embodiments, the system further comprises an apparatus for carbon dioxide capture coupled to the first carbon source feed and / or the second carbon source feed.

[0112] Method for the production of aviation fuel

[0113] As described below, the present disclosure provides a variety of methods for converting carbon source gas into aviation fuel. The present disclosure includes exemplary process conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure, space velocity, etc.) that provide certain advantages in the context of the systems and methods disclosed herein. However, any suitable conditions may be used, and those of ordinary skill in the art will understand how to change the conditions of any particular process described herein to obtain results and adjust the product distribution according to the needs of a particular application, as contemplated.

[0114] In some aspects, provided herein is a method for converting a carbon source gas and a reducing gas into aviation fuel, the method comprising:

[0115] contacting a first reducing gas and a first carbon source gas with a reduction catalyst to provide a paraffin product mixture comprising one or more paraffins;

[0116] contacting a second reducing gas and a second carbon source gas with an aromatic catalyst to provide an aromatic product mixture comprising one or more aromatic hydrocarbons and / or cycloalkanes;

[0117] The paraffinic product mixture and the aromatic product mixture are blended to provide a crude product mixture.

[0118] In certain aspects, provided herein is a method for converting a carbon source gas and a reducing gas into aviation fuel, the method comprising:

[0119] contacting a first reducing gas and a first carbon source gas with a paraffin catalyst to provide a paraffin product mixture comprising one or more paraffins;

[0120] contacting a second reducing gas and a second carbon source gas with an aromatic catalyst to provide an aromatic product mixture comprising one or more aromatic hydrocarbons and / or cycloalkanes;

[0121] The paraffinic product mixture and the aromatic product mixture are blended to provide a crude product mixture.

[0122] In certain embodiments, the reduction catalyst is an alkane catalyst or an olefin catalyst.

[0123] In certain embodiments, contacting the first reducing gas and the first carbon source gas with the reducing catalyst occurs at a paraffin temperature, which may be at least 80°C, or at least 100°C, or at least 120°C. In further embodiments, the paraffin temperature may be 550°C or less, or 600°C or less, or 650°C or less. In yet further embodiments, the paraffin temperature is about 100°C to about 600°C. In preferred embodiments, the paraffin temperature is about 200°C to about 500°C, and more preferably about 350°C.

[0124] In certain embodiments, contacting the first reducing gas and the first carbon source gas with the reduction catalyst occurs at a paraffin pressure of about 50 psi to about 4000 psi. In other embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 75 psi to about 225 psi. In yet other embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 75 psi. In other embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 100 psi. In some embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 125 psi. In certain preferred embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 150 psi. In certain embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 175 psi. In other embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 200 psi. In certain embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 225 psi.

[0125] In certain embodiments, contacting the first reducing gas and the first carbon source gas with the reducing catalyst to provide a paraffin product mixture comprising one or more paraffins is carried out at a paraffin standard gas hourly space velocity (paraffin GHSV) of about 500 ml / g*h to about 2000 ml / g*h. In other embodiments, the paraffin GHSV is about 1250 ml / g*h to about 1750 ml / g*h. In a preferred embodiment, the paraffin GHSV is about 1500 ml / g*h.

[0126] In certain embodiments, contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with the aromatic catalyst occurs at an aromatic temperature of about 100°C to about 500°C, preferably about 100°C to about 450°C. The aromatic temperature may be at least 80°C, or at least 100°C, or at least 120°C. The aromatic temperature may be 550°C or less, or 500°C or less, or preferably 450°C or less. In certain embodiments, the aromatic temperature is about 250°C to about 350°C. In some such embodiments, the aromatic temperature is about 250°C, about 275°C, about 300°C, about 325°C, or about 350°C. In certain preferred embodiments, the aromatic temperature is about 300°C.

[0127] In some embodiments, contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with the aromatic catalyst occurs at an aromatic pressure of about 50 psi to about 3000 psi, preferably about 50 psi to about 1000 psi. In some such embodiments, the aromatic pressure is about 50 psi, about 150 psi, about 250 psi, about 350 psi, about 450 psi, about 550 psi, about 650 psi, about 750 psi, about 850 psi, about 950 psi, or about 1000 psi. In some preferred embodiments, the aromatic pressure is about 450 psi.

[0128] In certain embodiments, contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with an aromatic catalyst to provide an aromatic product mixture comprising one or more aromatics and / or cycloalkanes is carried out at an aromatic standard gas hourly space velocity (aromatic GHSV) of about 8000 ml / g*h to about 12000 ml / g*h. In other embodiments, the aromatic GHSV is about 8750 ml / g*h to about 9250 ml / g*h. In still other embodiments, the aromatic GHSV is about 8750 ml / g*h, about 9000 ml / g*h or about 9250 ml / g*h. In a preferred embodiment, the paraffin GHSV is about 9000 ml / g*h.

[0129] In certain embodiments, the crude product mixture further comprises unreacted carbon source and / or reducing gas. In other embodiments, the method further comprises separating unreacted CO2 and / or reducing gas from the crude product mixture to provide a degassed crude product mixture. In yet other embodiments, the degassed crude product mixture comprises C 1-4 Hydrocarbon, C 5-8 Hydrocarbon, C 9-15 Hydrocarbons and C 16+ In still other embodiments, the separation comprises high pressure separation, low pressure separation or a combination thereof. In certain embodiments, the separation comprises high pressure separation and low pressure separation.

[0130] In certain embodiments, the method further comprises combining the unreacted CO2 and / or reducing gas with one or more of the first reducing gas, the first carbon source gas, the second reducing gas, and the second carbon source gas. In other embodiments, the method further comprises purifying the degassed product mixture to provide a product comprising C 9-15 A purified product mixture of hydrocarbons. In yet further embodiments, the purifying comprises a first separation and a second separation.

[0131] In certain embodiments, the first separating comprises separating the degassed crude product mixture into:

[0132] Contains C 1-4 a first lower carbon fraction of hydrocarbons; and

[0133] Contains C 5-8 Hydrocarbon, C 9-15 Hydrocarbons and C 16+ The first higher carbon fraction of hydrocarbons.

[0134] In further embodiments, the second separating comprises separating the first higher carbon fraction into:

[0135] Contains the C 5-8 The second lower carbon fraction of hydrocarbons;

[0136] Contains the C 9-15 said purified product mixture of hydrocarbons; and

[0137] Contains the C 16+ The second higher carbon fraction of hydrocarbons.

[0138] In certain embodiments, the method further comprises contacting the purified product mixture and a third reducing gas with an isomerization catalyst to provide an isomerized product mixture, the isomerized product mixture comprising:

[0139] Another C 1-8 hydrocarbon;

[0140] Another C 9-15 hydrocarbons, the additional C 9-15 Hydrocarbons include straight chain alkanes, branched chain alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatics, and cycloparaffins; and

[0141] Another C 16+ hydrocarbon.

[0142] In certain embodiments, contacting the purified product mixture and the third reducing gas with the isomerization catalyst occurs at an isomerization temperature of about 50° C. to about 450° C. In further embodiments, contacting the purified product mixture and the third reducing gas with the isomerization catalyst occurs at an isomerization pressure of about 50 psi to about 2000 psi.

[0143] In certain embodiments, the method further comprises a third separation, wherein the third separation comprises separating the isomerized product mixture into:

[0144] Contains the additional C 1-8 a first recycle gas mixture of hydrocarbons;

[0145] Contains the additional C16+ a third higher carbon fraction of hydrocarbons; and

[0146] Contains the additional C 9-15 A purified aviation fuel of hydrocarbons, the additional C 9-15 Hydrocarbons include straight chain alkanes, branched chain alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons, and cycloparaffins.

[0147] In certain embodiments, the purified aviation fuel comprises from about 10% to about 20% aromatics.

[0148] In certain embodiments, the method further comprises contacting the second higher carbon fraction and / or the third higher carbon fraction and a fourth reducing gas with a hydrocracking catalyst to provide a hydrocracked product mixture, the hydrocracked product mixture comprising:

[0149] C 1-17 Hydrocarbons; and

[0150] C 18+ hydrocarbon.

[0151] In further embodiments, the method further comprises a fourth separation, wherein the fourth separation comprises separating the hydrocracked product mixture into:

[0152] Contains the C 18+ a fourth higher carbon fraction of hydrocarbons; and

[0153] Contains the C 1-17 A second recycle gas mixture of hydrocarbons.

[0154] In yet further embodiments, the method further comprises combining the first recycle gas mixture and / or the second recycle gas mixture with the degassed crude product mixture.In still further embodiments, the method further comprises capturing a carbon source gas from a gas feed stream.

[0155] In certain embodiments, provided herein are fuel compositions produced by the methods of the present disclosure.

[0156] Optional and preferred features of the invention relating to the aviation fuel production method described above may also constitute optional or preferred features relating to the system for aviation fuel production, and vice versa.

[0157] Catalysts for converting carbon sources into paraffins

[0158] In certain aspects, the systems and methods of the present disclosure relate to the use of paraffin catalysts. In certain embodiments, the reducing catalyst is a paraffin catalyst. As used herein, the term "paraffin catalyst" refers to a catalyst for converting a carbon source and a reducing gas into paraffins, but the catalyst itself does not necessarily contain paraffins.

[0159] In certain embodiments, reduction and / or paraffin catalyst of the present disclosure are described as comprising and / or derived from a combination of specific metal oxides or multiple metal oxides. It will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art that during various catalyst preparation and activation methods known in the art, and in the method exemplified herein, some or all of the oxygen atoms in the oxygen atoms of the metal oxide can be bonded to other atoms in the catalyst mixture, and / or can be partially or completely removed from the catalyst mixture during the activation step (e.g., converted into CO and removed). Additionally, it will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art that for such catalysts, such as reduction and / or paraffin catalysts described below, the mol ratio of oxygen relative to the total composition can vary. Further, as will be appreciated, when defining a catalyst made of a metal oxide, the mol ratio of a metal to another metal is defined based on a metal (rather than a metal oxide).

[0160] In certain aspects, the paraffin catalysts of the present disclosure comprise: copper; zinc; one or more first elements, the one or more first elements selected from iron or cobalt; oxygen or carbon or nitrogen; optionally aluminum; optionally one or more second elements, the one or more second elements selected from Group V, Group VI, Group VII, Group VIII, Group IX, Group X, and Group XI metals (e.g., manganese, silver, niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, ruthenium, palladium, platinum, or nickel); and optionally one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals, and wherein the one or more first elements are present in an amount of about 1 wt.% to about 40 wt.% (e.g., about 1 wt.% to about 10 wt.%, about 25 wt.% to about 40 wt.%, about 30 wt.% to about 40 wt.%, or about 35 wt.% to about 40 wt.%) of the total amount of the copper, the zinc, the cobalt, the iron, the optional second element, and the optional Group IA and Group IIA metals.

[0161] In some embodiments, the one or more first elements are present in an amount of about 0.5 wt.%, about 1 wt.%, about 2 wt.%, about 3 wt.%, about 4 wt.%, about 5 wt.%, about 6 wt.%, about 7 wt.%, about 8 wt.%, about 9 wt.%, about 10 wt.%, about 11 wt.%, about 12 wt.%, about 13 wt.%, about 14 wt.%, about 15 wt.%, about 16 wt.%, about 17 wt.%, about 18 wt.%, about 19 wt.%, about 20 wt.%, about 21 wt.%, about 22 wt.%, about 23 wt.%, about 24 wt.%, about 25 wt.%, about 26 wt.%, about 27 wt.%, about 28 wt.%, about 29 wt.%, about 30 wt.%, about 31 wt.%, about 32 wt.%, about 33 wt.%, about 34 wt.%, about 35 wt.%, about 36 wt.%, about 37 wt.%, about 38 wt.%, about 39 wt.%, about 40 wt.%, about 41 wt.%, about 42 wt.%, about 43 wt.%, about 44 wt.%, about 45 wt.%, about 46 wt.%, about 47 wt.%, about 48 wt.%, about 49 wt.%, about 50 wt.%, about 51 wt.%, about 52 %, about 7wt.%, about 18wt.%, about 19wt.%, about 20wt.%, about 21wt.%, about 22wt.%, about 23wt.%, about 24wt.%, about 25wt.%, about 26wt.%, about 27wt.%, about 28wt.%, about 29wt.%, about 30wt.%, about 31wt.%, about 32wt.%, about 33wt.%, about 34wt.%, about 35wt.%, about 36wt.%, about 37wt.%, about 38wt.%, about 39wt.% or about 40wt.%. In some embodiments, the one or more first elements are present in an amount of 1-10 wt.%, 10-20 wt.%, or 20-30 wt.%, 20-25 wt.%, 22-24 wt.%, 25-40 wt.%, 30-40 wt.%, or 35-40 wt.%, based on the total amount of copper, zinc, the one or more first elements, the optional second element, and the optional Group IA metal.

[0162] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises a cobalt-embedded interconnected matrix of reduced copper metal nanoparticles and alumina-modified zinc oxide. In some embodiments, the cobalt is present in the form of cobalt oxide. In some embodiments, the copper is present in the form of copper oxide. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of cobalt to copper to zinc (Co:Cu:Zn) is about 0.1-100 based on cobalt, about 0.05-4 based on copper, and about 0.05-2 based on zinc. In some embodiments, the Co:Cu:Zn ratio is in the following ranges: 1-2 based on cobalt, 1-3 based on copper, and 0.5-1 based on zinc. In some embodiments, the Co:Cu:Zn ratio is about 1:2.5:1. In some embodiments, zinc is preferably 0.3-1 of the molar content of copper. In some embodiments, cobalt is preferably 0.1-1 of the molar content of copper.

[0163] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises an iron-embedded interconnected matrix of reduced copper metal nanoparticles and alumina-modified zinc oxide. In some embodiments, the iron is present in the form of iron oxide. In certain preferred embodiments, the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), or a combination thereof. In other embodiments, the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe3O4). In yet other embodiments, the iron oxide is a combination of magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite (Fe2O3).

[0164] In some embodiments, the copper is present in the form of copper oxide. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of iron to copper to zinc (Fe:Cu:Zn) is about 0.1-100 based on iron, about 0.05-4 based on copper, and about 0.05-4 based on zinc. In some embodiments, the Fe:Cu:Zn ratio is in the following ranges: 0.4-2 based on iron, 1-3 based on copper, and 0.5-3 based on zinc. In some embodiments, the Fe:Cu:Zn ratio is about 1:2.3:2.3. In some embodiments, zinc is preferably 0.3-1 of the molar content of copper. In some embodiments, iron is preferably 0.5-5 of the molar content of copper.

[0165] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more elements selected from transition metals or Group VI, Group VII, Group VIII, Group IX, Group X, or Group XI metals. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements selected from Group VI metals. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements selected from Group VII metals. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements selected from Group VIII metals. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements selected from Group IX metals. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements selected from Group X metals. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements selected from Group XI metals.

[0166] In some embodiments, the one or more second elements include manganese, silver, niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, ruthenium, palladium, platinum, or nickel.

[0167] In some embodiments, the one or more second elements include nickel. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements include silver. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements include palladium. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements include niobium. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements include manganese. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements include zirconium. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements include molybdenum.

[0168] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements in a molar ratio of about 0.05 to about 4 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements in a molar ratio of about 0.05 to about 3 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements in a molar ratio of about 0.05 to about 1 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements in a molar ratio of about 0.05 to about 0.75 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements in a molar ratio of about 0.05 to about 0.5 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements in a molar ratio of about 0.05 to about 0.25 relative to the one or more first elements.

[0169] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper at a molar ratio of about 0.5 to about 5 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper at a molar ratio of about 1 to about 10 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper at a molar ratio of about 2 to about 9 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper at a molar ratio of about 2.3 to about 8.4 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper at a molar ratio of about 2.3 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper at a molar ratio of about 8.4 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper at a molar ratio of about 1.5 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper at a molar ratio of about 1.0 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper at a molar ratio of about 0.75 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper at a molar ratio of about 0.5 relative to the one or more first elements.

[0170] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio of about 0.3 to about 3 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio of about 0.3 to about 3 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio of about 0.4 to about 1 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio of about 1.5 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio of about 1.0 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio of about 0.75 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio of about 0.5 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio of about 0.4 relative to copper.

[0171] In some embodiments, the one or more second elements comprise niobium. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements consist of niobium. In some embodiments, niobium is present in a molar ratio of about 0.05 to about 1 relative to copper. In some embodiments, niobium is present in a molar ratio of about 0.2 relative to copper. In some embodiments, niobium is present in a molar ratio of about 0.3 relative to copper. In some embodiments, niobium is present in a molar ratio of about 0.1 relative to copper.

[0172] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more IA or IIA metals. In some embodiments, one or more IA or IIA metals comprise magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, or cesium. In some embodiments, one or more IA or IIA metals consist of magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, or cesium. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more IA or IIA metals in a molar ratio of about 0.01 to about 1.0 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more IA or IIA metals in a molar ratio of about 0.05 to about 0.50 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more IA or IIA metals in a molar ratio of about 0.20 to about 0.50 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more IA or IIA metals in a molar ratio of about 0.30 to about 0.50 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more IA or IIA metals in a molar ratio of about 0.40 to about 0.50 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 0.15.

[0173] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more Group IA metals. In some embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise potassium, sodium, or cesium. In some embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of potassium, sodium, or cesium. In some embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise potassium. In some embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise sodium. In some embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise cesium. In some embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of potassium. In some embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of sodium. In some embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of cesium.

[0174] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises potassium at a molar ratio of about 0.05, about 0.09, about 0.1, about 0.15, about 0.2, about 0.25, about 0.3, about 0.35, about 0.4, about 0.45, or about 0.5 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises potassium at a molar ratio of about 0.09 relative to copper.

[0175] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises aluminum in a molar ratio of about 0.1 to about 10 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises aluminum in a molar ratio of about 0.1 to about 1 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises aluminum in a molar ratio of about 0.1 to about 0.2 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises aluminum in a molar ratio of about 0.5 to about 1 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises aluminum in a molar ratio of about 0.1 relative to copper. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises aluminum in a molar ratio of about 0.2 relative to copper.

[0176] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc oxide.

[0177] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper oxide.

[0178] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises cobalt oxide.

[0179] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises iron oxide.

[0180] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises nickel oxide.

[0181] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises alumina.

[0182] In certain embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise or consist of magnesium, calcium, sodium, or cesium. In certain embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise or consist of sodium or cesium. In certain embodiments of the paraffin catalysts of the present disclosure, replacing potassium with magnesium, calcium, sodium, or cesium does not substantially affect the catalytic activity, and it has been found that the stability provided by magnesium, calcium, sodium, and cesium is the same as the stability provided by potassium. This is in contrast to known synthesis gas catalysts, in which the selection of magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, or cesium greatly affects the activity.

[0183] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises or consists of aluminum oxide (Al2O3), wherein aluminum is present in a molar ratio of about 0.01 to about 100 relative to copper. In some embodiments, aluminum is present in a molar ratio of about 0.1 to about 0.8 relative to copper. In some embodiments, aluminum is present in a molar ratio of about 0.7 relative to copper. In some embodiments, aluminum is present in a molar ratio of about 10 relative to copper. In some embodiments, aluminum is present in a molar ratio of about 20 relative to copper. In some embodiments, aluminum is present in a molar ratio of about 30 relative to copper. In some embodiments, aluminum is present in a molar ratio of about 40 relative to copper. In some embodiments, aluminum is present in a molar ratio of about 50 relative to copper. In some embodiments, aluminum is present in a molar ratio of about 60 relative to copper. In some embodiments, aluminum is present in a molar ratio of about 70 relative to copper. In some embodiments, aluminum is present in a molar ratio of about 80 relative to copper. In some embodiments, aluminum is present in a molar ratio of about 90 relative to copper. In some embodiments, aluminum is present in a molar ratio of about 100 relative to copper. In some embodiments, alumina may be added as a support to increase the surface area of ​​copper and zinc, or generated in situ as a component of the paraffin catalyst, for example, by coprecipitation of aluminum nitrate with the first element, copper, and zinc precursors.

[0184] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper, zinc oxide, cobalt, and aluminum oxide. In some such embodiments, the molar ratios of the components are as described above. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises: cobalt; copper, the molar ratio of copper to cobalt is about 8.4; zinc, the molar ratio of zinc to cobalt is about 3.3; and aluminum oxide, wherein the molar ratio of aluminum to cobalt is about 1.8. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises: copper, the molar ratio of copper to cobalt is about 8.4; zinc oxide, the molar ratio of zinc oxide to cobalt is about 3.3; and aluminum oxide, the molar ratio of aluminum oxide to cobalt is about 0.9.

[0185] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper, zinc oxide, nickel, and aluminum oxide. In some such embodiments, the molar ratios of the components are as described above. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises: nickel; copper, the molar ratio of copper relative to nickel is about 2.5; zinc, the molar ratio of zinc relative to cobalt is about 1; and aluminum oxide, wherein the molar ratio of aluminum relative to nickel is about 0.7. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises: copper, the molar ratio of copper relative to nickel is about 2.5; zinc oxide, the molar ratio of zinc oxide relative to nickel is about 1; and aluminum oxide, the molar ratio of aluminum oxide relative to nickel is about 0.35.

[0186] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper, zinc oxide, iron, and aluminum oxide. In some such embodiments, the molar ratios of the components are as described above. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises: iron; copper, the molar ratio of copper relative to iron is about 2.3; zinc, the molar ratio of zinc relative to iron is about 2.3; and aluminum oxide, wherein the molar ratio of aluminum relative to iron is about 0.8. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises: copper, the molar ratio of copper relative to iron is about 2.3; zinc oxide, the molar ratio of zinc oxide relative to iron is about 2.3; and aluminum oxide, the molar ratio of aluminum oxide relative to iron is about 0.4.

[0187] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper, zinc oxide, cobalt, aluminum oxide, and a Group IA metal. In some embodiments, the molar ratios of the components are as described above. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises: cobalt; copper, the molar ratio of copper relative to cobalt is about 8.4; zinc, the molar ratio of zinc relative to cobalt is about 3.3; aluminum oxide, wherein the molar ratio of aluminum relative to cobalt is about 1.8; and one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals, the molar ratio of the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals relative to cobalt is about 0.14. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises: copper, the molar ratio of copper relative to cobalt is about 8.4; zinc oxide, the molar ratio of zinc oxide relative to cobalt is about 3.3; aluminum oxide, the molar ratio of aluminum oxide relative to cobalt is about 0.9; and one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals, the molar ratio of the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals relative to cobalt is about 0.14.

[0188] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper, zinc oxide, nickel, aluminum oxide, and a Group IA metal. In some embodiments, the molar ratios of the components are as described above. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises: nickel; copper, the molar ratio of copper relative to nickel is about 2.5; zinc, the molar ratio of zinc relative to nickel is about 1; aluminum oxide, wherein the molar ratio of aluminum relative to nickel is about 0.7; and a Group IA, wherein the molar ratio of the Group IA relative to nickel is about 0.1. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises: copper, the molar ratio of copper relative to nickel is about 2.5; zinc oxide, the molar ratio of zinc oxide relative to nickel is about 1; aluminum oxide, the molar ratio of aluminum oxide relative to nickel is about 0.35; and one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals, the molar ratio of the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals relative to nickel is about 0.1.

[0189] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper, zinc oxide, iron, aluminum oxide, and a Group IA metal. In some embodiments, the molar ratios of the components are as described above. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises: iron; copper, the molar ratio of copper relative to iron is about 2.3; zinc, the molar ratio of zinc relative to iron is about 2.3; aluminum oxide, wherein the molar ratio of aluminum relative to iron is about 0.4; and one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals, the molar ratio of the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals relative to iron is about 0.4. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises: copper, the molar ratio of copper relative to iron is about 2.5; zinc oxide, the molar ratio of zinc oxide relative to iron is about 1; aluminum oxide, the molar ratio of aluminum oxide relative to iron is about 0.35; and one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals, the molar ratio of the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals relative to iron is about 0.1.

[0190] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Al, O and an alkali metal. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Ni, Al, O and an alkali metal. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Fe, Al, O and an alkali metal. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Fe, Al, O and an alkali metal. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Al, O and an alkali metal. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Nb, Al and O and an alkali metal. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Ni, Al and O and an alkali metal. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Mo, Al and O and an alkali metal.

[0191] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Al, and O. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Fe, Al, and O. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Ni, Al, and O. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Al, and O. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Fe, Al, and O. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Nb, Al, and O. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Ni, Al, and O. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Mo, Al, and O.

[0192] In certain embodiments, the elemental composition of the paraffin catalyst material is Cu(ZnO)CoA / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoFeA / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoNbA / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoNiA / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoMoA / A12O3, wherein A is an alkali metal, and further wherein the relative amounts of the elemental components are as described above.

[0193] In certain embodiments, the elemental composition of the paraffin catalyst material is Cu(ZnO)Co / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoFe / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoNb / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoNi / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoMo / Al2O3, wherein the relative amounts of the elemental components are as described above.

[0194] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst is selected from one of the following exemplary catalysts: CuO(ZnO), Cu(ZnO)Co, Cu(ZnO)CoK, Cu(ZnO)CoFe, Cu(ZnO)CoFeK, Cu(ZnO)CoNi, Cu(ZnO)CoNiK, Cu(ZnO)CoNb, Cu(ZnO)CoNbK, Cu(ZnO)CoMo, Cu(ZnO)CoMoK on Al2O3, wherein the relative amounts of the elemental components are as described above. In certain embodiments, the paraffin catalyst is about CuO (2) (ZnO) (1) , Cu (2.5) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) , Cu (2.5) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) K (0.1) , Cu (1) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Fe(1) , Cu (1) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Fe (1) K (0.15) , Cu (2) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Ni (1) , Cu (2) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Ni (1) K (0.15) , Cu (2) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Nb (1) , Cu (2) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Nb (1) K (0.15) , Cu (2) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Mo (1) , Cu (2) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Mo (1) K (0.15) .

[0195] In a further aspect, provided herein is a catalyst for producing paraffinic hydrocarbons, the catalyst comprising:

[0196] One or more metals;

[0197] optionally one or more second elements selected from copper and zinc;

[0198] Optionally one or more Group VI, Group VII, Group VIII, Group IX, Group X or Group XI metal additives;

[0199] Optionally a Group IA or Group IIA metal promoter.

[0200] In certain embodiments, the one or more metals are selected from cobalt, iron, nickel, indium, yttrium, lanthanum, and combinations thereof. In other embodiments, the one or more metals are cobalt. In yet other embodiments, the one or more metals are iron. In still other embodiments, the one or more metals are a combination of iron and cobalt.

[0201] In certain embodiments, the one or more metals are present in the form of oxides, nitrides, or carbides. In other embodiments, the one or more second elements are copper. In yet other embodiments, the one or more second elements are zinc. In still other embodiments, the one or more second elements are copper and zinc. In certain embodiments, the one or more second elements are present in the form of oxides, nitrides, or carbides. In other embodiments, the one or more second elements are copper and zinc.

[0202] In certain embodiments, one or more Group VI, Group VII, Group VIII, Group IX, Group X, or Group XI metal additives are selected from manganese, silver, niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, ruthenium, palladium, platinum, or nickel when present. In other embodiments, the Group IA or Group IIA metal promoter is a Group IA element when present. In yet other embodiments, the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metal promoter is magnesium, calcium, lithium, sodium, potassium, or cesium when present. In yet other embodiments, the Group IA or Group IIA metal promoter is lithium, sodium, potassium, or cesium when present. In still other embodiments, the one or more second elements are present in an amount of about 0.5 wt.% to about 40 wt.% of the total amount of the one or more metals, the second element, the optional one or more Group VI, Group VII, Group VIII, Group IX, Group X, or Group XI metal additives, and the optional Group IA or Group IIA metal promoter.

[0203] In certain aspects, the present disclosure provides a catalyst comprising: one or more paraffinic metal oxides; optionally a support, and optionally one or more metal additives.

[0204] In certain embodiments, the one or more paraffin metal oxides are selected from cobalt oxide, iron oxide, nickel oxide, indium oxide, yttrium oxide, lanthanide oxides, and combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, the support, when present, comprises carbon, silica, zeolite, alumina, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide, or silicon carbide. In certain embodiments, the one or more metal additives, when present, are selected from Group IA or Group IIA elements, palladium, platinum, ruthenium, or combinations thereof.

[0205] In certain aspects, the present disclosure provides a catalytic composition comprising a paraffin catalyst disclosed herein and one or more of a reduced catalyst support. The reduced catalyst support can be any suitable material that can serve as a catalyst support.

[0206] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support comprises one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten and tin. In some preferred embodiments, the reduced catalyst support comprises γ-alumina. In certain embodiments, the reduction catalyst carrier is selected from carbon, silica, zeolite, alumina, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide and silicon carbide. In some embodiments, the reduction catalyst carrier is selected from alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite and thermally shocked gibbsite. In some embodiments, the reduction catalyst carrier is alumina formed in situ as part of a paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the reduction catalyst carrier is selected from, but not limited to, MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3 and TiO2. In some embodiments, the reduction catalyst carrier is selected from MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silicon carbide and TiO2.

[0207] In some embodiments, the reduction catalyst support comprises one or more carbon-based materials. In some embodiments, the carbon-based material is selected from activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide.

[0208] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is selected from SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2). In other embodiments, the reduction catalyst support is an aluminum-based material such as alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite and thermally shocked gibbsite.

[0209] In certain embodiments, the reduction catalyst carrier is a zeolite, such as Y-type zeolite, β-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolite (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolite (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite and combinations thereof. In certain preferred embodiments, the reduction catalyst carrier is MCM-49. In further embodiments, the zeolite comprises other metals, such as Zn, Ga, Fe or other transition metals. In yet further embodiments, other metals exist in the form of zeolite-loaded metals or in the form of isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework.

[0210] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

[0211] In some embodiments, the reduction catalyst support is a mesoporous material. In such embodiments, as will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art, the physical characteristics of the mesoporous material (e.g., mesopore volume and surface area) can be measured using standard gas absorption measurement techniques known in the art, including, for example, the Barrett-Joiner-Halenda (BJH) method for determining pore size distribution and pore volume, and the Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (BET) method for obtaining specific surface area (hereinafter referred to as "surface area") .

[0212] In some embodiments, the mesopore volume of the reduced catalyst support is from about 0.01 cc / g to about 3.0 cc / g.

[0213] In some embodiments, the surface area of ​​the reduced catalyst support is about 10 m 2 / g to about 1000m 2 In some preferred embodiments, the surface area of ​​the catalytic composition comprising the reduced catalyst support and the catalyst disclosed herein is about 10 m 2 / g to about 1000m 2 / g.

[0214] In some embodiments, the catalytic composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 10 nm to about 5 μm. In some embodiments, the catalytic composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 20 nm to about 5 μm. In some embodiments, the catalytic composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 50 nm to about 1 μm. In some embodiments, the catalytic composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 100 nm to about 500 nm. In some embodiments, the catalytic composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 50 nm to about 300 nm.

[0215] In some embodiments, the catalytic composition comprises from about 5 wt.% to about 80 wt.% of a paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalytic composition comprises from about 5 wt.% to about 70 wt.% of a paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalytic composition comprises from about 20 wt.% to about 70 wt.% of a paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalytic composition comprises from about 30 wt.% to about 70 wt.% of a paraffin catalyst.

[0216] In some embodiments, the support is a high surface area scaffold. In some embodiments, the support comprises mesoporous silica. In some embodiments, the support comprises a carbon allotrope.

[0217] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst is a nanoparticle catalyst. In some embodiments, the particle size of the paraffin catalyst on the surface of the support is about 1nm to 5nm. In some embodiments, the particle size of the paraffin catalyst on the surface of the support is about 5nm to 100nm. In some embodiments, the particle size of the paraffin catalyst on the surface of the support is 100-500nm. In some embodiments, the particle size of the particles that have not been agglomerated is 100-500nm.

[0218] In certain embodiments, the paraffin catalysts of the present disclosure (such as the paraffin catalysts described above) are active in the conversion of a carbon source gas (such as CO 2 ) into paraffins.

[0219] Catalyst for converting carbon source gas and reducing gas into linear alpha olefins

[0220] In some aspects, the system and method of the present disclosure relate to the use of olefin catalysts. As used herein, the term "olefin catalyst" refers to a catalyst for converting a carbon source and a reducing gas into olefins, but the catalyst itself does not necessarily contain olefins. In certain embodiments, the reduction catalyst of the present disclosure is an olefin catalyst of the present disclosure.

[0221] In certain aspects, the present disclosure provides an olefin catalyst comprising:

[0222] iron;

[0223] optionally alumina;

[0224] Optionally, a first element selected from copper, zinc, cobalt or combinations thereof; and

[0225] Optionally one or more second elements, the one or more second elements are selected from Group IA and Group IIA metals.

[0226] In certain preferred embodiments, the olefin catalyst further comprises an additive mixture including potassium, manganese, ruthenium and MgO. In further embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises from about 1 wt % to about 10 wt % of the additive mixture.

[0227] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst further comprises alumina.

[0228] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises a first element selected from copper, zinc, cobalt, or a combination thereof. In further embodiments, the first element is copper. In yet further embodiments, the first element is zinc. In still further embodiments, the first element is cobalt. In certain embodiments, the first element is a combination of copper, zinc, and / or cobalt.

[0229] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals. In further embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium or cesium. In yet further embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium or cesium. In some embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise magnesium. In some embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise calcium. In still further embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise potassium. In certain embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise sodium. In some embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise cesium. In some preferred embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of magnesium. In some preferred embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of calcium. In some embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of potassium. In some embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of sodium. In some embodiments, one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of cesium.

[0230] In some aspects, the present disclosure provides an olefin catalyst comprising:

[0231] iron;

[0232] optionally alumina;

[0233] A first element, the first element is selected from K, Li, Zr, Cs, Mg, Ca or a combination thereof; and

[0234] One or more second elements, the one or more second elements are selected from Au, Cu, Na, Cr, Al, Ga, Mn Co, Ru, Ni or a combination thereof.

[0235] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises:

[0236] iron;

[0237] K, Li, Zr, Cs, Mg, Ca or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron;

[0238] Au, Cu, Na, Cr, Al, Ga, Mn or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron;

[0239] The molar ratio of Zn relative to iron is 0 to about 0.50.

[0240] In certain embodiments, the catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron and Na in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron. In certain preferred embodiments, the catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio of about 0.04 relative to iron and Na in a molar ratio of about 0.006 relative to iron. In certain such embodiments, the olefin catalyst preferably does not comprise Zn.

[0241] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises:

[0242] iron;

[0243] K, Cs, Mg, Ca or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron;

[0244] Na, Cu, Cr, Mn or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron;

[0245] The molar ratio of Co, Ru, Ni or a combination thereof relative to iron is 0 to about 0.50.

[0246] In some such embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron. In certain preferred embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio of about 0.05 relative to iron.

[0247] In some preferred embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.50 relative to iron. In certain such embodiments, the olefin catalyst preferably comprises Co in a molar ratio of about 0.14 relative to iron. In certain more preferred embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio of about 0.14 relative to iron and K in a molar ratio of about 0.01 relative to iron.

[0248] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst further comprises a reduced catalyst support.

[0249] In certain preferred embodiments, the iron is in the form of iron oxide. In certain such embodiments, the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), or a combination thereof. In other such embodiments, the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe3O4). In other such embodiments, the iron oxide is a combination of magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite (Fe2O3).

[0250] In certain aspects, the olefin catalyst further comprises a reduced catalyst support. The reduced catalyst support can be any suitable material that can serve as a catalyst support.

[0251] In some embodiments, the reduction catalyst carrier comprises one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten and tin. In some preferred embodiments, the additional carrier comprises γ-alumina. In certain embodiments, the reduction catalyst carrier is selected from carbon, silica, zeolite, alumina, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide and silicon carbide. In some embodiments, the additional carrier is selected from alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite and thermally shocked gibbsite. In some embodiments, the reduction catalyst carrier is alumina formed in situ as part of a paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the reduction catalyst carrier is selected from, but not limited to, MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3 and TiO2. In some embodiments, the reducing catalyst support is selected from MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silicon carbide, and TiO2.

[0252] In some embodiments, the reduction catalyst support comprises one or more carbon-based materials. In some embodiments, the carbon-based material is selected from activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide.

[0253] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is selected from SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2). In other embodiments, the reduction catalyst support is an aluminum-based material such as alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite and thermally shocked gibbsite.

[0254] In certain embodiments, the reduction catalyst carrier is a zeolite, such as Y-type zeolite, beta-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolite (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolite (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite and combinations thereof. In certain preferred embodiments, the reduction catalyst carrier is MCM-49. In further embodiments, the zeolite comprises a modifier, such as Zn, Ga, Fe or other transition metals. In yet further embodiments, the modifier exists in the form of a zeolite-loaded metal or in the form of isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework.

[0255] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

[0256] In certain embodiments, the reduction catalyst support is a mesoporous material. In such embodiments, as will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art, the physical characteristics of the mesoporous material (e.g., mesopore volume and surface area) can be measured using standard gas absorption measurement techniques known in the art, including, for example, the Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) method for determining pore size distribution and pore volume, and the Bruno, Emmett and Taylor (BET) method for obtaining specific surface area (hereinafter referred to as "surface area"), In other embodiments, the mesoporous volume of the reduction catalyst support is about 0.01cc / g to about 3.0cc / g.

[0257] In certain embodiments, the surface area of ​​the reduced catalyst support is about 10 m 2 / g to about 1000m 2 In certain preferred embodiments, the surface area of ​​the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support is about 10 m 2 / g to about 1000m 2 / g.

[0258] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst carrier is in the form of particles having an average size of about 10 nm to about 5 μm. In other embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst carrier is in the form of particles having an average size of about 20 nm to about 5 μm. In yet other embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst carrier is in the form of particles having an average size of about 50 nm to about 1 μm. In still other embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst carrier is in the form of particles having an average size of about 100 nm to about 500 nm. In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst carrier is in the form of particles having an average size of about 50 nm to about 300 nm.

[0259] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support comprises from about 5 wt.% to about 80 wt.% of an olefin catalyst. In other embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support comprises from about 5 wt.% to about 70 wt.% of an olefin catalyst. In yet other embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support comprises from about 20 wt.% to about 70 wt.% of an olefin catalyst. In still other embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support comprises from about 30 wt.% to about 70 wt.% of an olefin catalyst.

[0260] In certain embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is a high surface area scaffold. In further embodiments, the reduced catalyst support comprises mesoporous silica. In yet further embodiments, the reduced catalyst support comprises a carbon allotrope.

[0261] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst is a nanoparticle catalyst. In other embodiments, the particle size of the olefin catalyst on the surface of the support is about 1nm to 5nm. In yet other embodiments, the particle size of the olefin catalyst on the surface of the support is about 5nm to 100nm. In still other embodiments, the particle size of the olefin catalyst on the surface of the support is 100-500nm. In certain embodiments, the particle size of the particles that have not been subjected to agglomeration is 100-500nm.

[0262] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst is pretreated with synthesis gas. In yet other embodiments, the olefin catalyst is pretreated with hydrogen. In still other embodiments, the olefin catalyst is heated with an inert gas (including but not limited to nitrogen, argon) before being produced.

[0263] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalysts of the present disclosure (such as the olefin catalysts described above) are active in the conversion of a carbon source gas (such as CO 2 ) to olefins.

[0264] Catalysts for converting carbon sources and reducing gases into aromatics

[0265] In some aspects, the systems and methods of the present disclosure relate to the use of aromatic catalysts. As used herein, the term "aromatic catalyst" refers to a catalyst for converting a carbon source and a reducing gas into aromatic hydrocarbons, but the catalyst itself does not necessarily contain aromatic hydrocarbons. In some aspects, the aromatic catalyst of the present disclosure comprises: one or more aromatic metal oxides; optionally an aromatic catalyst support; and optionally one or more aromatic metal additives. In certain embodiments, the catalyst of the present disclosure is described as comprising and / or derived from a specific metal oxide or a combination of multiple metal oxides. It will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art that during various catalyst preparation and activation methods known in the art, as well as in the methods exemplified herein, some or all of the oxygen atoms of the metal oxide may be bonded to other atoms in the catalyst mixture, and / or may be removed from the catalyst mixture during the activation step (e.g., converted to CO2 and removed). Additionally, it will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art that for such catalysts, for example, the aromatic catalysts described below, the molar ratio of oxygen relative to the total composition may vary.

[0266] In certain embodiments, the one or more aromatic metal oxides are selected from zinc oxide, copper oxide, chromium oxide, and zirconium oxide. In other embodiments, the one or more aromatic metal additives, when present, are selected from Group IA or Group IIA elements, palladium, platinum, and ruthenium. In yet other embodiments, the one or more aromatic metal oxides comprise a first aromatic metal oxide and a second aromatic metal oxide, wherein the first aromatic metal oxide is zinc or copper, and the second aromatic metal oxide is selected from chromium, aluminum, and zirconium.

[0267] In some embodiments, the first aromatic metal oxide and the second metal oxide are present in a first metal ratio of about 1:5 to about 5:1. In certain embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:5. In other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:4.5. In still other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:4. In still other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:3.5. In certain embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:3. In still other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:2. In still other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:1.5. In certain embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:1. In still other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1.5:1. In still other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 2:1. In still other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 2.5:1. In certain embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 3:1. In still other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 3.5:1. In yet further embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 4: 1. In still further embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 4.5: 1. In certain embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 5:1.

[0268] In certain embodiments, the aromatic catalyst comprises: one or more metals; optionally one or more Group VI, Group VII, Group VIII, Group IX, Group X, Group XI, or Group XIII metal additives; and optionally a Group IA or IIA metal promoter.

[0269] In certain embodiments, the one or more metals include a first metal and a second metal. In other embodiments, the first metal is zinc oxide. In yet other embodiments, the second metal is selected from zirconium, chromium, aluminum, and copper. In still other embodiments, the first metal exists in the form of an oxide, a nitride, or a carbide. In certain embodiments, the second metal exists in the form of an oxide, a nitride, or a carbide.

[0270] In certain embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:10 to about 10:1. In other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:10. In yet other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:9. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:8. In certain embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:7. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:6. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:5. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:4. In certain embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:3. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:2. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:1. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 2:1. In certain embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 3:1. In further embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 4:1. In yet further embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 5:1. In still further embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 6:1. In certain embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 7:1. In further embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 8:1. In yet further embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 9:1. In still further embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 10:1.

[0271] In certain embodiments, the metal additive is selected from gallium, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, manganese, rhenium, iron, ruthenium, osmium, cobalt, rhodium, iridium, nickel, palladium, platinum, copper, silver, gold, and aluminum. In certain preferred embodiments, the metal additive is gallium. In other embodiments, the metal additive is chromium. In yet other embodiments, the metal additive is molybdenum. In yet other embodiments, the metal additive is tungsten. In certain embodiments, the metal additive is manganese. In yet other embodiments, the metal additive is rhenium. In yet other embodiments, the metal additive is iron. In yet other embodiments, the metal additive is ruthenium. In certain embodiments, the metal additive is osmium. In yet other embodiments, the metal additive is cobalt. In yet other embodiments, the metal additive is rhodium. In yet other embodiments, the metal additive is iridium. In certain embodiments, the metal additive is nickel. In yet other embodiments, the metal additive is palladium. In yet other embodiments, the metal additive is platinum. In yet other embodiments, the metal additive is copper. In certain embodiments, the metal additive is silver. In yet other embodiments, the metal additive is gold. In further embodiments, the additive is aluminum.

[0272] In certain embodiments, the metal promoter is selected from lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium. In further embodiments, the metal promoter is selected from lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, magnesium, calcium, and cesium. In yet further embodiments, the metal promoter is selected from beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium. In still further embodiments, the metal promoter is potassium.

[0273] In certain embodiments, the aromatic catalyst is ZnCrO4.

[0274] In certain preferred embodiments, the aromatic metal is zinc; one or more aromatic metal additives are present, and wherein the one or more aromatic metal additives are gallium; and

[0275] The aromatic catalyst comprises an aromatic catalyst support, wherein the aromatic catalyst support is ZSM-5.

[0276] In certain embodiments, the aromatic catalyst comprises a mixed oxide component including iron and zinc; and a zeolite component comprising a zeolite. In certain embodiments, the zeolite is selected from Y-type zeolite, β-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolite (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolite (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite and combinations thereof. In certain preferred embodiments, the zeolite is ZSM-5.

[0277] In other embodiments, the zeolite component further comprises a modifier, preferably Ga or Zn. In yet other embodiments, the zeolite component comprises 0wt% to about 2wt% of a modifier. In still other embodiments, the zeolite component comprises 0.01wt% to about 2wt% of a modifier. In certain embodiments, the zeolite component comprises 0.1wt% to about 1.5wt% of a modifier. In some preferred embodiments, the zeolite component comprises 0.5wt% to about 1wt% of a modifier.

[0278] In certain embodiments, the aromatic catalyst comprises about 10 wt % to about 90 wt % of a mixed oxide component and about 90 wt % to about 10 wt % of a zeolite component. In other embodiments, the aromatic catalyst comprises about 25 wt % to about 75 wt % of a mixed oxide component and about 75 wt % to about 25 wt % of a zeolite component. In certain preferred embodiments, the aromatic catalyst comprises about 40 wt % to about 60 wt % of a mixed oxide component and about 60 wt % to about 40 wt % of a zeolite component.

[0279] In certain embodiments, the mixed oxide composition comprises:

[0280] iron;

[0281] Zinc in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.50 relative to iron;

[0282] Na, K, Cs, Mg, Ca or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.10 relative to iron;

[0283] The molar ratio of Cu, Cr, Mn or a combination thereof relative to iron is 0 to about 0.60.

[0284] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.10 relative to iron. In certain preferred embodiments, the aromatic catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio of about 0.036 relative to iron.

[0285] In certain aspects, the aromatic catalyst further comprises an aromatic catalyst support. The aromatic catalyst support can be any suitable material that can function as a catalyst support.

[0286] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst carrier comprises one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten and tin. In some preferred embodiments, the aromatic catalyst carrier comprises γ-alumina. In certain embodiments, the aromatic catalyst carrier is selected from carbon, silica, zeolite, alumina, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide and silicon carbide. In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst carrier is selected from alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite and thermally shocked gibbsite. In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst carrier is alumina formed in situ as part of a paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst carrier is selected from, but not limited to, MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3 and TiO2. In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is selected from MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silicon carbide, and TiO2.

[0287] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support comprises one or more carbon-based materials. In some embodiments, the carbon-based material is selected from activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide.

[0288] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is selected from SiAlO x, SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2). In other embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is an aluminum-based material such as alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite and thermally shocked gibbsite.

[0289] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst carrier is a zeolite, such as Y-type zeolite, beta-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolite (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolite (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite and combinations thereof. In certain preferred embodiments, the aromatic catalyst carrier is ZSM-5. In further embodiments, the zeolite comprises a modifier, such as Zn, Ga, Fe or other transition metals. In yet further embodiments, the modifier exists in the form of a zeolite-loaded metal or in the form of isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework.

[0290] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

[0291] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is a mesoporous material. In some embodiments, the mesopore volume of the aromatic catalyst support is from about 0.01 cc / g to about 3.0 cc / g.

[0292] In some embodiments, the surface area of ​​the aromatic catalyst support is about 10 m 2 / g to about 1000m 2 In some preferred embodiments, the surface area of ​​the catalytic composition comprising an aromatic catalyst support and a catalyst disclosed herein is from about 10 m2 / g to about 1000 m2 / g.

[0293] In some embodiments, the catalytic composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 10 nm to about 5 μm. In some embodiments, the catalytic composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 20 nm to about 5 μm. In some embodiments, the catalytic composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 50 nm to about 1 μm. In some embodiments, the catalytic composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 100 nm to about 500 nm. In some embodiments, the catalytic composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 50 nm to about 300 nm.

[0294] In some embodiments, the catalytic composition comprises about 5 wt.% to about 80 wt.% of an aromatic catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalytic composition comprises about 5 wt.% to about 70 wt.% of an aromatic catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalytic composition comprises about 20 wt.% to about 70 wt.% of an aromatic catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalytic composition comprises about 30 wt.% to about 70 wt.% of an aromatic catalyst.

[0295] In some embodiments, the support is a high surface area scaffold. In some embodiments, the support comprises mesoporous silica. In some embodiments, the support comprises a carbon allotrope.

[0296] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst is a nanoparticle catalyst. In some embodiments, the particle size of the aromatic catalyst on the surface of the support is about 1nm to 5nm. In some embodiments, the particle size of the aromatic catalyst on the surface of the support is about 5nm to 100nm. In some embodiments, the particle size of the aromatic catalyst on the surface of the support is 100-500nm. In some embodiments, the particle size of the particles that have not been agglomerated is 100-500nm.

[0297] The optional and preferred features of the present invention relating to the catalyst for converting a carbon source and a reducing gas into aromatic hydrocarbons described above may also constitute optional or preferred features relating to the catalyst for converting a carbon source into paraffins or the catalyst for converting a carbon source gas and a reducing gas into linear alpha olefins, and vice versa.

[0298] In certain embodiments, the aromatic catalysts of the present disclosure (such as the aromatic catalysts described above) are active in the conversion of a carbon source gas (such as CO 2 ) into aromatic hydrocarbons.

[0299] Catalysts for hydrogenation and isomerization

[0300] In certain aspects, the systems and methods of the present disclosure involve the use of hydrogenation and isomerization catalysts (referred to herein as "isomerization catalysts") to isomerize and / or hydrogenate a percentage of the hydrocarbons produced. Any suitable hydrogenation and / or isomerization catalyst known in the art can be used in these methods. However, the specific examples set forth below are provided to illustrate the use of such catalysts and to identify catalysts that are particularly suitable for use in conjunction with other features of the systems and methods disclosed herein.

[0301] In certain embodiments, the isomerization catalyst of the present disclosure is an aluminosilicate catalyst, such as zeolite. In other embodiments, the isomerization catalyst is AlCl3. In yet other embodiments, the isomerization catalyst is doped with a transition metal, such as Pt, Pd, etc. In still other embodiments, the isomerization catalyst is Pt / β-zeolite. In certain embodiments, the isomerization catalyst of the present disclosure comprises an isomerization metal and an isomerization carrier. The isomerization carrier can be any suitable material that can serve as a catalyst carrier.

[0302] In some embodiments, the isomerization support comprises one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten and tin. In some preferred embodiments, the isomerization support comprises γ-alumina. In certain embodiments, the isomerization support is selected from carbon, silica, zeolite, alumina, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide and silicon carbide. In some embodiments, the isomerization support is selected from alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite and thermally shocked gibbsite. In some embodiments, the isomerization support is alumina formed in situ as part of a paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the isomerization support is selected from, but not limited to, MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3 and TiO2. In some embodiments, the isomerization support is selected from MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silicon carbide, and TiO2.

[0303] In some embodiments, the isomerization support comprises one or more carbon-based materials. In some embodiments, the carbon-based material is selected from activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide.

[0304] In some embodiments, the isomerization support is selected from SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2). In other embodiments, the isomerization support is an aluminum-based material such as alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite and thermally shocked gibbsite.

[0305] In some embodiments, the isomerization carrier is a zeolite, such as Y-type zeolite, β-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolite (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolite (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite and combinations thereof. In further embodiments, the zeolite comprises a modifier, such as Zn, Ga, Fe or other transition metals. In yet further embodiments, the modifier is present in the form of a zeolite-loaded metal or in the form of isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework.

[0306] In some embodiments, the isomerization support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

[0307] In other embodiments, the isomerization metal is selected from Pd, Pt, Ni-Co, Ni-W, and Ni-Mo. In still other embodiments, the zeolite support is selected from SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, Y-type zeolite, β-zeolite, ZSM5, ZSM22, SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41, MCM-49, MCM-22, TiO2, WO3, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2). In some embodiments, the zeolite carrier is selected from TiO2, WO3, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2). In still other embodiments, the isomerization catalyst is selected from Pt / ZrO2 / WO3, Pt / ZrWO4, Pt / SiAlO x , Pt / SO4-ZrO2, Pt / ZSM5, Pt / ZSM22, Pt / SAPO, Ni-W / SiAlO x , Ni-W / SO4-ZrO2, Ni-W / ZSM5, Ni-W / ZSM22 and Ni-W / SAPO. In certain preferred embodiments, the isomerization catalyst is Pt / ZrO2 / WO3. In other preferred embodiments, the isomerization catalyst is Pt / SAPO containing 0.2wt% Pt.

[0308] In certain embodiments, the isomerization metal comprises about 0.5 wt % to about 40 wt % of an isomerization catalyst. In other embodiments, the isomerization metal comprises about 0.5 wt % of an isomerization catalyst. In yet other embodiments, the isomerization metal comprises about 1 wt % of an isomerization catalyst. In still other embodiments, the isomerization metal comprises about 10 wt % of an isomerization catalyst. In certain embodiments, the isomerization metal comprises about 20 wt % of an isomerization catalyst. In other embodiments, the isomerization metal comprises about 30 wt % of an isomerization catalyst. In yet other embodiments, the isomerization metal comprises about 40 wt % of an isomerization catalyst.

[0309] The optional and preferred features of the invention relating to the catalysts for hydrogenation and isomerization described above may also constitute optional or preferred features relating to the catalysts for converting a carbon source into paraffins, the catalysts for converting a carbon source gas and a reducing gas into linear alpha olefins, or the catalysts for converting a carbon source and a reducing gas into aromatics, and vice versa.

[0310] Catalysts for hydrocracking

[0311] The systems and methods of the present disclosure may use any suitable hydrocracking catalyst, including hydrocracking catalysts known in the art. In some embodiments, catalysts similar to those described for the hydrogenation and isomerization steps (above) are also used for hydrocracking.

[0312] Any suitable hydrocracking catalyst known in the art may be used in these methods. However, the specific examples set forth below are provided to illustrate the use of such catalysts and to identify catalysts that are particularly suitable for use in conjunction with other features of the systems and methods disclosed herein.

[0313] In other embodiments, the hydrocracking catalyst comprises a hydrocracking metal such as Pd, Pt, Ni, Co, Co-W, Ni-W, and Ni-Mo; and a hydrocracking support. The hydrocracking support may be any suitable material that can serve as a catalyst support.

[0314] In some embodiments, the hydrocracking carrier comprises one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten and tin. In some preferred embodiments, the hydrocracking carrier comprises γ-alumina. In certain embodiments, the hydrocracking carrier is selected from carbon, silica, zeolite, alumina, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide and silicon carbide. In some embodiments, the hydrocracking carrier is selected from alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite and thermally shocked gibbsite. In some embodiments, the hydrocracking carrier is alumina formed in situ as part of a paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the hydrocracking carrier is selected from, but not limited to, MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3 and TiO2. In some embodiments, the hydrocracking support is selected from the group consisting of MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silicon carbide, and TiO2.

[0315] In some embodiments, the hydrocracking support comprises one or more carbon-based materials. In some embodiments, the carbon-based material is selected from activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide.

[0316] In some embodiments, the hydrocracking support is selected from SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2). In other embodiments, the hydrocracking support is an aluminum-based material such as alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite and thermally shocked gibbsite.

[0317] In some embodiments, the hydrocracking carrier is a zeolite, such as Y-type zeolite, beta-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolite (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolite (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite and combinations thereof. In further embodiments, the zeolite comprises a modifier, such as Zn, Ga, Fe or other transition metals. In yet further embodiments, the modifier is present in the form of a zeolite-loaded metal or in the form of isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework.

[0318] In some embodiments, the hydrocracking support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

[0319] In certain embodiments, the hydrocracking metal accounts for about 0.5wt% to about 40wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst. In other embodiments, the hydrocracking metal accounts for about 0.5wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst. In yet other embodiments, the hydrocracking metal bag accounts for about 1wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst. In still other embodiments, the hydrocracking metal accounts for about 10wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst. In certain embodiments, the hydrocracking metal accounts for about 20wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst. In other embodiments, the hydrocracking metal accounts for about 30wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst. In yet other embodiments, the hydrocracking metal bag accounts for about 40wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst.

[0320] The optional and preferred features of the present invention relating to the catalyst for hydrocracking described above may also constitute optional or preferred features relating to the catalyst for converting a carbon source into paraffins, the catalyst for converting a carbon source gas and a reducing gas into linear alpha olefins or the catalyst for converting a carbon source and a reducing gas into aromatics or the catalyst for hydrogenation and isomerization, and vice versa.

[0321] Reducing gas, carbon source gas and their ratio

[0322] The systems and methods of the present disclosure can be designed to utilize any combination of suitable reducing gas and suitable carbon source gas. In certain embodiments, the carbon source and reducing gas can be provided separately to the necessary reaction vessels, or they can be premixed in certain embodiments (e.g., in some embodiments, the first reducing gas feed and the first carbon source gas feed can refer to the same physical characteristics, and the second reducing gas feed and the second carbon source gas feed can also refer to the same physical characteristics) to provide a single feed stream containing both the carbon source gas and the reducing gas, which is coupled to an appropriate reactor.

[0323] Additionally, a single gas feed comprising a first reducing gas feed, a first carbon source gas feed, a second reducing gas feed, and a second carbon source gas feed may be premixed to provide a single feed stream coupled to the aromatic reactor and the paraffin reactor comprising both the carbon source gas and the reducing gas.

[0324] In certain embodiments, the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas, and the fourth reducing gas are independently selected from H2, hydrocarbons, synthesis gas (CO / H2), or from a gas that is or is derived from a flare gas, exhaust gas, or natural gas.

[0325] In certain embodiments, the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas and / or the fourth reducing gas are H2. In other embodiments, the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas and / or the fourth reducing gas are synthesis gas. In yet other embodiments, the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas and / or the fourth reducing gas are hydrocarbons, such as CH4, ethane, propane or butane. In still other embodiments, the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas and / or the fourth reducing gas are or are derived from flare gas, waste gas or natural gas. In certain embodiments, the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas and / or the fourth reducing gas are CH4.

[0326] In certain preferred embodiments, the first carbon source gas and / or the second carbon source gas is CO2. In other embodiments, the first carbon source gas and / or the second carbon source gas comprises CO2. In yet other embodiments, the first carbon source gas and / or the second carbon source gas is CO. In still other embodiments, the first carbon source gas and / or the second carbon source gas comprises CO.

[0327] As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the flow rates of the carbon source gas and / or reducing gas or various product mixtures through the paraffin and / or aromatic reactors (or elsewhere in the disclosed systems and methods) can be adjusted as necessary to provide the desired product output characteristics.

[0328] Additionally, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the carbon source gas and the reducing gas may be provided in any suitable ratio that provides the desired product output characteristics. In certain embodiments, the molar ratio of the first reducing gas to the first carbon source gas is from about 10:1 to about 1:10. In further embodiments, the molar ratio of the first reducing gas to the first carbon source gas is from about 5:1 to about 0.5:1. In yet further embodiments, the molar ratio of the second reducing gas to the second carbon source gas is from about 10:1 to about 1:10. In still further embodiments, the molar ratio of the second reducing gas to the second carbon source gas is from about 5:1 to about 0.5:1.

[0329] definition

[0330] Unless otherwise defined herein, scientific and technical terms used herein shall have the meanings commonly understood by those of ordinary skill in the art. In general, the nomenclature used in conjunction with the chemistry, cell and tissue culture, molecular biology, cell and cancer biology, neurobiology, neurochemistry, virology, immunology, microbiology, pharmacology, genetics, and protein and nucleic acid chemistry described herein and their techniques are those well known and commonly used in the art.

[0331] The methods and techniques of the present disclosure are generally performed according to conventional methods well known in the art and as described in various general and more specific references that are cited and discussed throughout the present specification unless otherwise indicated. See, e.g., Principles of Neural Science, McGraw-Hill Medical, New York, NY (2000); Motulsky, Intuitive Biostatistics, Oxford University Press, Inc. (1995); Lodish et al., Molecular Cell Biology, 4th ed., WH Freeman & Co., New York (2000); Griffiths et al., Introduction to Genetic Analysis, 7th ed., WH Freeman & Co., New York (1999); and Gilbert et al., Developmental Biology, 6th ed., Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, MA (2000).

[0332] Unless otherwise defined herein, chemical terms used herein are used according to conventional usage in the art as exemplified in: "The McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Chemical Terms", Parker S., ed., McGraw-Hill, San Francisco, CA (1985).

[0333] All of the above and any other publications, patents, and published patent applications mentioned in this application are specifically incorporated herein by reference. In the event of a conflict, the present specification, including its specific definitions, will control.

[0334] As used herein, the term "logarithm of solubility", "LogS" or "logS" is used in the art to quantify the water solubility of a compound. The solubility of a compound significantly affects its absorption and distribution characteristics. Low solubility is generally associated with poor absorption. The LogS value is the unit exfoliation logarithm (base 10) of the solubility measured in moles / liter.

[0335] As used herein, the term "monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" refers to a compound containing only a single aromatic ring, which may be substituted or unsubstituted (e.g., alkylbenzenes), and which may optionally be fused to a non-aromatic ring (e.g., tetralin and indane).

[0336] As used herein, the term "polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons" refers to compounds comprising at least two aromatic rings, which may be fused (e.g., two different rings share two adjacent ring atoms). As a non-limiting example, the term "polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons" may be used to refer to a group of compounds comprising naphthalene and / or naphthalene derivatives.

[0337] As used herein, the term "petroleum-derived" refers to compounds and compositions derived from petroleum feedstocks by physical and chemical methods, but does not include compounds and compositions whose carbon is derived from carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide, even if the carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide is produced from a petroleum feedstock (e.g., by burning petroleum).

[0338] When the amount of an impurity is specified as being at a level of "about 0," those skilled in the art understand that such measurements are accurate to a certain number of significant figures based on the relevant detection methods used.

[0339] Examples

[0340] The invention now generally described will be more readily understood by reference to the following examples, which are included merely for the purpose of illustrating certain aspects and embodiments of the invention and are not intended to limit the invention.

[0341] Example 1: Exemplary CO2 to Aromatic Catalyst Compositions

[0342] Exemplary aromatic catalysts of the present disclosure include mixed metal oxides and zeolite supports. The ratio of the mixed metal oxides and zeolite can be:

[0343] a. Mixed oxides: 10% to 90%, zeolite: 90% to 10%

[0344] b. Mixed oxides: 25% to 75%, zeolite: 75% to 25%

[0345] c. Mixed oxides: 40% to 60%, zeolite: 60% to 40%

[0346] The mixed oxide component of the exemplary catalyst comprises iron and zinc oxide modified with an additional metal in the form of A a B b Fe 100 Zn x Oy The above-mentioned metal compositions are provided in the form of wherein a, b and x represent the atomic composition of each metal, and y is the number of oxygen atoms of the supplementary metal. A is composed of at least one of Na, K, Cs, Mg or Ca, and B is composed of at least one of Cu, Cr or Mn. The ranges of a, b and x are as follows:

[0347] a.0<a<10

[0348] b.0<=b<60

[0349] c.0<=x<50

[0350] The zeolite component of the exemplary catalyst is ZSM5 or has the formula M x ZSM5 y A metal-modified or metalloid-modified ZSM5 wherein x and y are the weight percentages of the metal and ZSM5. M is composed of Ga or Zn, and the ranges of x and y are as follows:

[0351] a.ZSM5 100

[0352] b.Ga 0.01 ZSM5 99，99 To Ga2ZSM5 98

[0353] c.Ga 0.1 ZSM5 99，9 To Ga 1.5 ZSM5 98.5

[0354] d.Ga 0.5 ZSM5 99，5 To Ga1ZSM5 99

[0355] e.Zn 0.01 ZSM5 99，99 To Zn2ZSM5 98

[0356] f.Zn 0.1 ZSM5 99，9 To Zn 1.5 ZSM5 98.5

[0357] g.Zn 0.5 ZSM5 99，5 To Zn1ZSM5 99

[0358] Example 2: General Procedure for CO2 to Aromatic Catalyst Synthesis

[0359] The aromatic catalyst disclosed herein is synthesized by incipient wetness impregnation of zinc nitrate and chromium nitrate (Zn / Cr=0.5) onto a H-ZSM-5 support. The metal content of zinc and chromium is 38 wt%. The HZSM-5 support is prepared by hydrothermal reforming of ethyl orthosilicate and aluminum nitrate (Si / Al=70) at 180°C for 48 hours. The resulting product is dried at 110°C overnight. Calcination is performed at 450°C for 2 hours.

[0360] Example 3: Synthesis of Exemplary CO2-to-Aromatic Catalysts

[0361] Mixed metal oxide preparation: 109.1g of iron nitrate nonahydrate and 20.1g of zinc nitrate hexahydrate were dissolved in 675mL of water to obtain solution I. 47.2g of sodium carbonate was dissolved in 891mL of water to obtain solution II. Solution I and solution II were added to a flask containing 100mL of water and heated to 338K under stirring. The feed rate of solution II was 1.3 times that of solution I, so that the addition of the two solutions was completed simultaneously. After addition, the temperature of the solution was increased to 353K, and the precipitated solid was aged in the solution for 1 hour. After aging, the solid was separated from the solution by filtration. The resulting solid was then washed with water until the sodium level in the solid was less than 0.1wt%. The washed solid was then dried at 395K for 6 hours to obtain solid I. 1.34g of potassium carbonate was dissolved in 1.5mL of water to obtain solution III. Solution III was combined with solid I to obtain mixture I, which was dried at 395K for 6 hours to obtain solid II. Solid II was then calcined at 623 K for 6 hours. The obtained mixed oxide was K 3.6 Fe 100 Zn 16 O y .

[0362] Preparation of Ga-ZSM5 support: 3.7 g of gallium nitrate was dissolved in 3 mL of water to obtain solution I. Solution I was then mixed with 99 g of ZSM5 to obtain mixture I. Mixture I was dried at 395 K for 6 hours to obtain solid I. Solid I was calcined at 773 K for 12 hours. The obtained solid was Ga1ZSM5 99 .

[0363] Zn-ZSM5 support preparation: 2.9 g of zinc nitrate hexahydrate was dissolved in 3 mL of water to obtain solution I. Solution I was then mixed with 99 g of ZSM5 to obtain mixture I. Mixture I was dried at 395 K for 6 hours to obtain solid I. Solid I was calcined at 773 K for 12 hours. The obtained solid was Zn1ZSM5 99 .

[0364] Example 4: General procedure for converting CO2 to aromatics

[0365] The formation of aromatics from CO2 and hydrogen was carried out in a fixed bed flow reactor. The flow reactor was loaded with 1 kg of ZnCr2O4 on a HZSM-5 catalyst. The catalyst was reduced in situ at 350°C in a hydrogen environment for 2 hours. The reactor was heated to 300°C after pretreatment. A feed mixture of 75% hydrogen and 25% CO2 was heated at 300 psi and 5,000 h -1 The gas hourly space velocity is introduced into the reactor. CO2 is converted into carbon chain numbers (C8-C 12 ) of a mixture of alkylated aromatic hydrocarbons.

[0366] Example 5: Exemplary Procedure I for Hydrogenation of CO2 to SAF Range Aromatics (Commercial ZSM5)

[0367] Catalyst K prepared by the method of Example 1 3.6 Fe 100 Zn 16 O y Granulate to 40 mesh to 60 mesh size. Commercial ZSM5 was granulated to the same 40 mesh to 60 mesh size. An equal weight of granulated K 3.6 Fe 100 Zn 16 O y and ZSM5 were mixed by a rotary mixer at 60 rpm for 1 minute to obtain the final catalyst I. 2 grams of catalyst I was loaded into a 1 / 2″ tubular fixed bed reactor.

[0368] Catalyst I was activated with a 5% H2 gas stream diluted with nitrogen. The activation was carried out at 200 PSIG and 623 K. The activation duration was 5 hours. After activation, a mixed gas of CO2 and H2 was introduced into the reactor. The molar ratio of H2 / CO2 was 3:1. The reactor was operated at a pressure of 450 PSIG and a temperature of 573 K, with a standard gas hourly space velocity of 9000 ml / g*h. The liquid and gas reactor effluents were measured, and the single-pass CO2 conversion and main component carbon selectivity are reported in Table 5.1.:

[0369] Table 5.1. Product distribution of Example 4

[0370]

[0371] The PAHs in aromatics range from 1wt% to 2wt%.

[0372] Example 6: Exemplary Procedure II for Hydrogenation of CO2 to SAF Range Aromatics (Modified ZSM5)

[0373] The mixed metal oxide prepared by the method of Example 3, for example, K 3.6 Fe 100 Zn 16 Oy Granulate to 40 mesh to 60 mesh. The catalyst carrier, for example, Ga1ZSM5 prepared by the method of Example 3 99 Granulate to the same 40 mesh size to 60 mesh size. 3.6 Fe 100 Zn 16 O y and G a ZSM5 99 The mixture was mixed by a rotary mixer at 60 rpm for 1 minute to obtain Catalyst II. 2 grams of Catalyst II was loaded into a 1 / 2" tubular fixed bed reactor.

[0374] Catalyst II was activated with a 5% H gas stream diluted with nitrogen. The activation was carried out at 200 PSIG and 623 K. The activation duration was 5 hours. After activation, a mixed gas of CO2 and H2 was introduced into the reactor. The molar ratio of H2 / CO2 was 3:1. The reactor was operated at a pressure of 450 PSIG and a temperature of 573 K, with a standard gas hourly space velocity of 9000 ml / g*h. The reactor effluents of liquid and gas were measured, and the single-pass CO2 conversion and main component carbon selectivity are reported in Table 6.2.:

[0375] Table 6.2 Distribution of products obtained by exemplary procedure II for hydrogenation to aromatics

[0376]

[0377] The PAHs in aromatics range from 1wt% to 2wt%.

[0378] Example 7: Exemplary CO2 to Paraffin Catalyst Compositions

[0379] Exemplary paraffin catalysts of the present disclosure include mixed metal oxides. Exemplary mixed oxide compositions are given below:

[0380] The mixed oxide composition is denoted as A a B b Fe 100 Zn x O y : The catalyst is a mixed oxide composed of iron, zinc oxide and another promoter metal. The catalyst is denoted as A a B b Fe 100 Zn x O y, wherein a, b and x represent the atomic composition of each metal, and y is the number of oxygen atoms of the supplementary metal. A is at least one of K, Li, Zr, Cs, Mg and Ca, and B is at least one of Au, Cu, Na, Cr, Al, Ga and Mn. The ranges of a, b and x are as follows:

[0381] a.0≤a<20

[0382] b.0≤b<60

[0383] c.0≤x<50

[0384] The mixed oxide composition is denoted as A a B b Fe 100 X c The mixed oxide component of the catalyst consists of iron and zinc oxide modified with an additional metal in the form of A a B b Fe 100 X c The metal compositions are provided in the form of: wherein a, b and c represent the atomic composition of each metal. A is at least one of K, Cs, Mg and Ca; and B is at least one of Na, Cu, Cr and Mn, and X is at least one of Co, Ru and Ni. The ranges of a, b and c are as follows:

[0385] a.0≤a<20

[0386] b.0≤b<60

[0387] c.0≤c<50

[0388] Example 8: Synthesis of Exemplary CO2-to-Alkanes Catalyst Compositions

[0389] I. Mixed oxide catalyst preparation: Iron oxide and zinc oxide complexes were first prepared by coprecipitation using metal nitrate precursor solutions at a concentration of 0.5 M. They were then reacted with 1.2 molar equivalents of sodium carbonate using parallel addition mixing at 338 K for 1 hour.

[0390] The resulting slurry was then aged at 353K with continuous stirring for 1 hour. The precipitate was then obtained by using vacuum filtration and a 0.25 micro filter. Excess sodium was removed by 3 distilled water washing steps, each using 300 mL of distilled water. The resulting solid contained less than 0.1% residual sodium. The precipitate was dried at 393K for 4 hours and then ground into a fine powder.

[0391] Potassium was impregnated using the incipient wetness method. In this method, a 2M potassium carbonate solution was prepared and then sprayed onto the solid iron and zinc complexes while blending on a shaker. It was then calcined at 623K for 6 hours. The resulting catalyst was Na 0.6 K4F 100 Zn 16 O y .

[0392] II.A a B b Fe 100 X c Catalyst Preparation: Mined magnetite ground to 0.25 particle size was impregnated with 5 wt% potassium relative to iron using the incipient wetness impregnation method. Impregnation was done with potassium carbonate solution using enough distilled water to provide 0.2 g water / g magnetite. The impregnation step was done dropwise on an ultrasonic bath. After the solution was completely added to the magnetite, the slurry was placed in the ultrasonic bath for 10 minutes. It was then dried in an oven at 393 K for 4 hours and then calcined at 623 K for 6 hours. The resulting catalyst was Fe 100 K5

[0393] II.A a B b Fe 100 X c Catalyst preparation: Solutions of Fe and Co metals were prepared using metal nitrates as precursors, and a base solution of sodium carbonate at a molar equivalent of 2.4 to the metal nitrates was prepared at a 0.5M concentration.

[0394] Water sufficient to submerge the stirrer was added to a 2L round bottom flask and heated to 343K with continuous stirring. The metal and base solutions were transferred to the round bottom flask by peristaltic pumps for parallel addition at target flow rates so that the metal solution was fully added with half of the base solution in approximately 1 hour. The temperature was then increased to 353K and aged for 1 hour. After one hour, the mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and then reheated to 343K. The remainder of the base solution was added over one hour, and the resulting slurry was aged at 353K for another hour.

[0395] The precipitate was vacuum filtered using a 0.25 micro filter. The product was then washed 3 times and blended with approximately 300 mL of water and filtered at each step to remove excess sodium to less than 0.1%. The resulting precipitate was dried at 393 K for 4 hours, then ground into a fine powder and calcined at 623 K for 6 hours. The resulting catalyst was Fe 100 Co 14 K1

[0396] Example 8: General Procedure for Conversion of CO2 to Alkanes

[0397] The formation of paraffins from CO2 and hydrogenation was carried out in a fixed bed flow reactor. The flow reactor was loaded with 1 kg of CoRu / In on an alumina catalyst. The catalyst was reduced in situ in a hydrogen environment at 250°C for 2 hours. The reactor was heated to 250°C after pretreatment. A feed mixture of 80% hydrogen and 20% CO2 was heated at 500 psi and 9,000 h -1 The gas hourly space velocity is introduced into the reactor. CO2 is converted into carbon chain numbers (C6-C 40 ) of a mixture of paraffins and olefins.

[0398] Example 9: Exemplary Procedure I for Converting CO2 to Alkanes

[0399] The catalyst prepared by the method of Example 7, such as Na 0.6 K4F 100 Zn 16 O y Pelletized to 40-60 mesh size and pretreated with H2 at 623K, 150PSIG, GHSV1200 for 5 hours. It was then conditioned with syngas (H2 / CO=2) at 623K at GHSV600. The catalyst was then subjected to CO2 hydrogenation to produce a catalyst with a hydrocarbon range of C 10 -C 16 The conversion of CO2 to SAF was measured in a fixed bed reactor at 623K, GHSV 1500, 450 PSIG using feed gases H2 = 72 mol%, CO2 = 24 mol% and N2 = 4 mol% as internal standards.

[0400] Table 9.1.: Distribution of products obtained by exemplary procedure I for converting CO2 to paraffins

[0401]

[0402] Analysis of SAF product range (C 10 -C 16 ) in the carbon type distribution of higher molecular weight products. The results are summarized in Figure 5 and the distribution of each carbon number is summarized in Table 9.2 below, where others include isoparaffins and cycloparaffins.

[0403] Table 9.2: C obtained by exemplary procedure I for converting CO2 to paraffins 10 -C 16 Hydrocarbon distribution.

[0404]

[0405] Example 10: Exemplary Procedure II for Converting CO2 to Alkanes

[0406] The catalyst prepared by the method of Example 7, for example, Fe 100 K5 was pelletized to 40-60 mesh size and pretreated under H2 at 150 PSIG for 10 hours at 623 K and GHSV 400. After hydrogen treatment, the conversion of CO2 to SAF was carried out in a fixed bed reactor at 623 K, GHSV 1500, 450 PSIG using feed gases H2 = 63 mol%, CO2 = 23 mol% and N2 = 4 mol% as internal standards.

[0407] Table 10.1.: Product distribution obtained by Exemplary Procedure II for the conversion of CO2 to paraffins.

[0408]

[0409] Analysis of SAF product range (C 10 -C 16 ) in the carbon type distribution of higher molecular weight products. The results are summarized in Figure 6 and the distribution of each carbon number is summarized in the following Table 10.2., where others include isoparaffins and cycloparaffins.

[0410] Table 10.2.: C obtained by Exemplary Procedure II for the conversion of CO2 to paraffins 10 -C 16 Hydrocarbon distribution.

[0411]

[0412] Example 11: Exemplary Procedure III for Converting CO2 to Alkanes

[0413] The catalyst prepared by the method of Example 7, for example, Fe 100 Co 14 K1 was pelletized to 40-60 mesh size and pretreated under H2 at 150 PSIG at 623K and GHSV 200 for 5 hours. After hydrogen treatment, the catalyst was conditioned with syngas (H2 / CO=2) at 145 PSIG, 623K and GHSV 600 for 1 hour. The conversion of CO2 to SAF was measured in a fixed bed reactor at 623K, GHSV 1500, 450 PSIG using a feed gas of H2=63 mol%, CO2=23 mol% and N2=4 mol% as an internal standard.

[0414] Table 11.1: Product distribution obtained by exemplary procedure III for converting CO2 to paraffins.

[0415]

[0416] Analysis of SAF product range (C 10 -C 16 ) in the carbon type distribution of higher molecular weight products. The results are summarized in Figure 7 and the distribution of each carbon number is summarized in Table 11.2 below, where others include isoparaffins and cycloparaffins.

[0417] Table 11.2.: C obtained by exemplary procedure III for the conversion of CO2 to paraffins 10 -C 16 Hydrocarbon distribution.

[0418]

[0419] Example 12: General Procedure for Separating Target Range Hydrocarbons

[0420] A feed mixture of 50% CO2 to paraffinic products (eg, from Example 3) and 50% CO2 to aromatic products (eg, from Example 2) was introduced into the distillation system under ambient pressure N2 atmosphere. A fraction of 150°C-250°C was collected.

[0421] Example 13: General Procedure for Hydroisomerization of CO2 to SAF Product

[0422] The fraction collected from the separation step (e.g., the fraction from Example 4) was fed to a hydroisomerization reactor loaded with 1 kg of Pt / β-zeolite catalyst (0.5 wt% Pt). The reaction was carried out at 750 psi, with the molar ratio of hydrogen to hydrocarbon set at 500, and the liquid weight hourly space velocity was 1.0 h -1 The fraction is converted into a mixture of saturated normal paraffins, isoparaffins, aromatics and cycloparaffins, wherein the carbon chain number is selected between C8 and C 15 between.

[0423] Example 14: Exemplary Procedure for Hydrogenation and Hydrodeoxygenation

[0424] Platinum (0.5 wt% Pt) and palladium / carbon (1 wt% Pd) impregnated on alumina were loaded into a hydroisomerization fixed bed reactor. The catalyst was pretreated with hydrogen at 600 psig at 100°C for 2 hours and then at 300°C for 4 hours with a GHSV of 3000. The liquid was fed at a WHSV of 1 with a liquid / hydrogen volume ratio of 50. The resulting liquid was collected to fully convert olefins and oxygenates to paraffins and produce 10% cracked products from the process.

[0425] Example 15: Exemplary Procedure for Hydroisomerization of Paraffinic SAF

[0426] Platinum (0.2 wt% Pt) impregnated on SAPO-11 was loaded into a hydroisomerization fixed bed reactor. The catalyst was pretreated with hydrogen at 1009°C for 2 hours at ambient pressure and then at 250°C for 12 hours. The liquid was fed at a WHSV of 1, with a liquid / hydrogen volume ratio of 10. The resulting liquid was collected such that the conversion of normal paraffins to isoparaffins was 65% and the conversion of cracked products from the process was 10%.

[0427] Example 16: General Procedure for Hydrocracking

[0428] The fraction collected from the separation step (e.g., the fraction from Example 4) was fed to a hydrocracking reactor loaded with 1 kg of Pt / Y zeolite catalyst (0.5 wt% Pt). The reaction was carried out at 750 psi, with the molar ratio of hydrogen to hydrocarbon set at 20, and the liquid weight hourly space velocity was 1.0 h -1 The fraction is converted into a mixture of saturated normal paraffins, isoparaffins, aromatics and cycloparaffins, wherein the carbon chain number is selected between C8 and C 15 between.

[0429] Example 17: Blending Jet Fuels from Aromatic and Paraffinic SAFs

[0430] 1. 160 gallons of a paraffinic fuel mixture are mixed with 120 gallons of an aromatic fuel mixture. Of the 160 gallons of paraffinic fuel mixture, 100 gallons are isoparaffins and 60 gallons are normal paraffins, which is ensured by controlling the hydroisomerization conditions of the paraffins. By controlling the aromatic hydrogenation conditions, of the 120 gallons of the aromatic fuel mixture, 80 gallons are cycloparaffins and 40 gallons are aromatics. Therefore, this exemplary blended jet fuel has the following composition:

[0431] Normal paraffins: 21.4v%

[0432] Isoparaffins: 35.7v%

[0433] Cycloalkanes: 28.6v%

[0434] Aromatics: 14.3v%

[0435] PAHs<1v%

[0436] Indane and tetralin <1v%

[0437] II. 200 gallons of a paraffin fuel mixture is mixed with 200 gallons of an aromatic fuel mixture. By controlling the hydroisomerization conditions of the paraffins, 120 gallons of the 200 gallons of the paraffin fuel mixture are isoparaffins and 80 gallons are normal paraffins. By controlling the aromatic hydrogenation conditions, 160 gallons of the 200 gallons of the aromatic fuel mixture are cycloparaffins and 40 gallons are aromatics. Therefore, the blended jet fuel has the following composition:

[0438] Normal paraffins: 20v%

[0439] Isoparaffin: 30v%

[0440] Cycloalkanes: 40v%

[0441] Aromatics: 10v%

[0442] PAHs<1v%

[0443] Indane and tetralin <1v%

[0444] Example 18: Exemplary Fuel Compositions

[0445] Renewable fuels are produced by contacting carbon dioxide and hydrogen with a catalyst to produce a mixture of normal paraffins, iso-paraffins, cycloparaffins, and aromatics. This product is analyzed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and further characterized according to each of the standard methods specified in Table 18.1 below.

[0446] Table 18.1. Analytical Results of Exemplary Fuel Compositions

[0447]

[0448] Example 19: Comparison of aviation fuel produced by the disclosed method with conventional aviation fuel

[0449] Synthetic Jet A and conventional (petroleum-based) Jet A will be compared in a turbojet engine. The two fuels will be tested continuously using the same engine, instrumentation, and test chamber. The engine will first run on the Jet A + 5% oil mixture and will be fed from a 2-gallon liquid distribution tank pressurized by temporary nitrogen. The container and fuel lines will be drained and replaced with a synthetic jet fuel + 5% oil mixture, and the test will be repeated. The engine will be run at multiple speeds and held at each point for 1.5 minutes to reach thermal equilibrium. The last 20 seconds of each hold will be averaged as a data point.

[0450] Cranking times, engine speeds, and temperatures will also be compared. After running the throttle hook to measure performance, the engine will be shut down and allowed to cool for 15 minutes. During the cool-down period, the battery will be recharged. After 15 minutes, the engine will be started and allowed to idle. This process will be the same for each engine to eliminate known effects on engine starting performance.

[0451] Incorporated by Reference

[0452] All publications and patents mentioned herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. In the event of a conflict, the present application, including any definitions herein, will control.

[0453] Equivalent

[0454] Although specific embodiments of the present invention have been discussed, the above description is illustrative rather than restrictive. After reading this specification and the following claims, many variations of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art. The full scope of the present invention should be determined by reference to the full scope of the claims and their equivalents and the description and such variations.

Claims

1. A system for producing aviation fuel, the system comprising: a first reducing gas feed; a first carbon source feed; A paraffin reactor comprising a reducing catalyst, the paraffin reactor having a first reducing gas feed inlet, a first carbon source inlet, and a paraffin product outlet, wherein the first reducing gas feed is coupled to the first reducing gas feed inlet, and the first carbon source feed is coupled to the first carbon source feed inlet: a second reducing gas feed; a second carbon source feed; an aromatic reactor comprising an aromatic catalyst, the aromatic reactor having a second reducing gas feed inlet, a second carbon source inlet, and an aromatic product outlet, wherein the second reducing gas feed is coupled to the second reducing gas feed inlet, and the second carbon source feed is coupled to the second carbon source feed inlet; as well as A blender having an alkane product inlet, an aromatic product inlet and a blended product outlet, wherein the alkane product outlet from the alkane reactor is coupled to the alkane product inlet of the blender, and the aromatic product outlet from the alkane reactor is coupled to the aromatic product inlet of the blender.

2. A system for producing aviation fuel, the system comprising: a first reducing gas feed; a first carbon source feed; a paraffin reactor comprising a paraffin catalyst, the paraffin reactor having a first reducing gas feed inlet, a first carbon source inlet, and a paraffin product outlet, wherein the first reducing gas feed is coupled to the first reducing gas feed inlet, and the first carbon source feed is coupled to the first carbon source feed inlet; a second reducing gas feed; a second carbon source feed; an aromatic reactor comprising an aromatic catalyst, the aromatic reactor having a second reducing gas feed inlet, a second carbon source inlet, and an aromatic product outlet, wherein the second reducing gas feed is coupled to the second reducing gas feed inlet, and the second carbon source feed is coupled to the second carbon source feed inlet; as well as A blender having an alkane product inlet, an aromatic product inlet and a blended product outlet, wherein the alkane product outlet from the alkane reactor is coupled to the alkane product inlet of the blender, and the aromatic product outlet from the alkane reactor is coupled to the aromatic product inlet of the blender.

3. The system of claim 1 or 2, wherein the reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, and the paraffin catalyst comprises: one or more paraffinic metals; optionally one or more second elements selected from copper and zinc; and Optionally one or more Group VI, Group VII, Group VIII, Group IX, Group X or Group XI metal additives.

4. The system of claim 1 or 2, wherein the reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, and the paraffin catalyst comprises: copper; Zinc; one or more first elements, the one or more first elements being selected from iron or cobalt; one or more non-metallic elements, wherein the one or more non-metallic elements are selected from oxygen, carbon or nitrogen; optionally aluminum; and Optionally one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals; wherein the one or more first elements are present in an amount of about 1 wt. % to about 40 wt. % of the total amount of the copper, the zinc, the cobalt, and the optional Group IA or Group IIA metal.

5. The system of any one of claims 1 to 4, wherein the reduced catalyst is a paraffin catalyst and the paraffin catalyst comprises a cobalt-embedded interconnected matrix of reduced copper metal nanoparticles and alumina-modified zinc oxide.

6. The system of claim 4 or 5, wherein the reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, and the molar ratio of cobalt to copper to zinc (Co:Cu:Zn) in the paraffin catalyst is about 100:1:30.5 7. The system of any one of claims 1 to 4, wherein the reduced catalyst is a paraffin catalyst and the paraffin catalyst comprises an iron embedded interconnected matrix composed of reduced copper metal nanoparticles and alumina modified zinc oxide.

8. The system of claim 4 or 7, wherein the molar ratio of iron to copper to zinc (Fe:Cu:Zn) is about 100:1:0.

5.

9. The system of any one of claims 4 to 8, wherein the reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, and the paraffin catalyst comprises the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals.

10. The system of claim 1 or 2, wherein the reduction catalyst is an olefin catalyst, and the olefin catalyst comprises: iron; optionally alumina; Optionally, a first element selected from copper, zinc, cobalt or combinations thereof; and Optionally one or more second elements, the one or more second elements are selected from Group IA or Group IIA metals.

11. The system of claim 10, wherein the olefin catalyst further comprises an additive mixture including potassium, manganese, ruthenium, and MgO.

12. The system of claim 11, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises from about 1 wt% to about 10 wt% of the additive mixture.

13. The system of claim 10, wherein the olefin catalyst optionally further comprises Zr, Au, Cr, Ga, Mn, Ru, Ni, or a combination thereof.

14. The system of claim 13, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises: K, Li, Zr, Cs, Mg, Ca or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron; Au, Cu, Na, Cr, Al, Ga, Mn or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron; The molar ratio of Zn relative to iron is 0 to about 0.

50.

15. The system of claim 14, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron and Na in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron.

16. The system of claim 15, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises K at a molar ratio of about 0.04 relative to iron and Na at a molar ratio of about 0.006 relative to iron.

17. The system of claim 13, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises: K, Cs, Mg, Ca or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron; Na, Cu, Cr, Mn or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron; The molar ratio of Co, Ru, Ni or a combination thereof relative to iron is 0 to about 0.

50.

18. The system of claim 17, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.

20.

19. The system of claim 18, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises K at a molar ratio relative to iron of about 0.

05.

20. The system of any one of claims 17 to 19, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.

50.

21. The system of claim 20, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio relative to iron of about 0.

14.

22. The system of claim 21, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co at a molar ratio of about 0.14 relative to Fe and K at a molar ratio of about 0.01 relative to Fe.

23. The system of claims 10 to 22, wherein the iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), or a combination thereof.

24. The system of any one of claims 10 to 23, wherein the iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe3O4).

25. The system of any one of claims 10 to 23, wherein the iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is hematite (Fe2O3).

26. The system of claim 23, wherein the iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is a combination of magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite (Fe2O3).

27. The system of any one of claims 1 to 26, wherein the reduced catalyst further comprises a reduced catalyst support.

28. The system of claim 27, wherein the reduced catalyst support comprises: A) one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten and tin, such as MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silicon carbide and TiO2; B) Carbon-based materials such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene and graphene oxide; C)SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2); D) aluminum-based materials such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, such as Y-type zeolite, β-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof, Optionally wherein the zeolite comprises a modifier such as Zn, Ga, Fe or other transition metals; and Optionally wherein the modifier is present in the form of a zeolite-supported metal or in the form of isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; Optionally wherein the reduced catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine and / or sulfur.

29. The system of claim 27 or 28, wherein the reduced catalyst support is MCM-49.

30. The system of any one of claims 1 to 29, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises: One or more aromatic metals; Optionally one or more Group VI, Group VII, Group VIII, Group IX, Group X, Group XI or Group XIII aromatic metal additives; and Optionally a Group IA or Group IIA metal promoter.

31. The system of any one of claims 1 to 30, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises a mixed oxide component including iron and zinc; and a zeolite component comprising zeolite.

32. The system of claim 31, wherein the zeolite is selected from the group consisting of Y-type zeolite, β-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolite (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolite (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof, preferably wherein the zeolite is ZSM-5.

33. The system of claim 31 or 32, wherein the zeolite component further comprises a modifier, such as Ga or Zn.

34. The system of claim 33, wherein the zeolite component comprises 0 wt% to about 2 wt% of the modifier.

35. The system of claim 33 or 34, wherein the zeolite component comprises 0.01 wt% to about 2 wt% of the modifier.

36. The system of any one of claims 33 to 35, wherein the zeolite component comprises 0.1 wt% to about 1.5 wt% of the modifier.

37. The system of any one of claims 33 to 36, wherein the zeolite component comprises 0.5 wt% to about 1 wt% of the modifier.

38. The system of any one of claims 31 to 37, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 10 wt% to about 90 wt% of the mixed oxide component and from about 90 wt% to about 10 wt% of the zeolite component.

39. The system of any one of claims 31 to 38, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 25 wt% to about 75 wt% of the mixed oxide component and from about 75 wt% to about 25 wt% of the zeolite component.

40. The system of any one of claims 31 to 39, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 40 wt% to about 60 wt% of the mixed oxide component and from about 60 wt% to about 40 wt% of the zeolite component.

41. The system of claims 31 to 40, wherein the mixed oxide component comprises: iron; Zinc in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.50 relative to iron; Na, K, Cs, Mg, Ca or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.10 relative to iron; The molar ratio of Cu, Cr, Mn or a combination thereof relative to iron is 0 to about 0.

60.

42. The system of claim 41, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.10 relative to iron.

43. The system of claim 41 or 42, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises K at a molar ratio relative to iron of about 0.

036.

44. The system of claim 30, wherein: The one or more aromatic metals include a first aromatic metal and a second aromatic metal; The first aromatic metal is zinc; and The second aromatic metal is selected from the group consisting of zirconium, chromium, aluminum and copper.

45. The system of claim 30 or 44, wherein the one or more aromatic metal additives, when present, are selected from gallium, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, manganese, rhenium, iron, ruthenium, osmium, cobalt, rhodium, iridium, nickel, palladium, platinum, copper, silver, gold, and aluminum.

46. ​​The system of any one of claims 30, 44, and 45, wherein the one or more aromatic metal additives are present, and wherein the one or more aromatic metal additives is gallium.

47. The system of any one of claims 30 and 44 to 46, wherein the metal promoter is selected from lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, magnesium, calcium, and cesium.

48. The system of any one of claims 30 and 44 to 47, wherein the first aromatic metal and the second metal are present in a first metal ratio of about 1:5 to about 5:

1.

49. The system of claim 30, wherein: The aromatic metal is zinc; the one or more aromatic metal additives are present, and wherein the one or more aromatic metal additives is gallium; and The aromatic catalyst comprises an aromatic catalyst support, wherein the aromatic catalyst support is ZSM-5.

50. The system of any one of claims 49, wherein the aromatic catalyst further comprises an aromatic catalyst support.

51. The system of claim 50, wherein the aromatic catalyst support comprises: A) one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten and tin, such as MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silicon carbide and TiO2; B) Carbon-based materials such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene and graphene oxide; C)SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2); D) aluminum-based materials such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, such as Y-type zeolite, β-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof, Optionally wherein the zeolite comprises a modifier such as Zn, Ga, Fe or other transition metals; and Optionally wherein the modifier is present in the form of a zeolite-supported metal or in the form of isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; Optionally wherein the aromatic catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine and / or sulfur.

52. The system of claim 50 or 51, wherein the aromatic catalyst support is ZSM-5.

53. The system of any one of claims 1 to 52, further comprising: A high pressure separator having a blended product inlet, optionally an HP recycle gas outlet, and an HP separated product outlet, wherein the blended product outlet of the blender is coupled to the blended product inlet of the high pressure separator.

54. The system of claim 53, wherein the HP recycle gas outlet is coupled to the first reducing gas feed, the second reducing gas feed, the first carbon source feed, and / or the second carbon source feed, when present.

55. The system of claim 53 or 54, further comprising: A low pressure separator having an HP separated product inlet, optionally an LP recycle gas outlet and an LP separated product outlet, wherein the HP separated product outlet of the high pressure separator is coupled to the HP separated product inlet of the low pressure separator.

56. The system of claim 55, wherein the LP recycle gas outlet, when present, is coupled to one or more of the first reducing gas feed, the second reducing gas feed, the first carbon source feed, and the second carbon source feed.

57. The system of claim 55 or 56, further comprising: A first separator having an inlet for a product separated by LP, a C 1-4 Hydrocarbon export and C 5+ A hydrocarbon outlet, wherein the LP separated product outlet of the low pressure separator is coupled to the LP separated product inlet of the first separator.

58. The system of claim 57, further comprising: A second separator, the second separator having a C 5+ Hydrocarbon inlet, C 5-8 Hydrocarbon export, C 16+ Hydrocarbon export and C 9-15 The hydrocarbon outlet of the first separator is 5+ The hydrocarbon outlet is coupled to the C 5+ Hydrocarbon inlet.

59. The system of claim 58, further comprising: a third reducing gas feed; and An isomerization reactor, the isomerization reactor comprising an isomerization catalyst, the isomerization reactor having a third reducing gas feed inlet, a C 9-15 a hydrocarbon inlet and an isomerized product outlet, wherein the third reducing gas feed is coupled to the third reducing gas feed inlet, and the C 9-15 The hydrocarbon outlet is coupled to the C 9-15 Hydrocarbon inlet.

60. The system of claim 59, wherein the isomerization catalyst comprises an isomerization metal such as Pd, Pt, Ni-Co, Ni-W, and Ni-Mo; and an isomerization support.

61. The system of claim 60, wherein the isomerization support comprises: A) one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten and tin, such as MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silicon carbide and TiO2; B) Carbon-based materials such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene and graphene oxide; C)SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2); D) aluminum-based materials such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, such as Y-type zeolite, β-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof, Optionally wherein the zeolite comprises a modifier such as Zn, Ga, Fe or other transition metals; and Optionally wherein the modifier is present in the form of a zeolite-supported metal or in the form of isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; Optionally wherein the isomerization support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine and / or sulfur.

62. The system of claim 60 or 61, wherein the isomerization catalyst is selected from Pt / ZrO2 / WO3, Pt / ZrWO4, Pt / SiAlO x , Pt / SO4-ZrO2, Pt / ZSM5, Pt / ZSM22, Pt / SAPO, Ni-W / SiAlO x , Ni-W / SO4-ZrO2, Ni-W / ZSM5, Ni-W / ZSM22 and Ni-W / SAPO.

63. The system of any one of claims 60 to 62, wherein the isomerization catalyst is Pt / ZrO2 / WO3.

64. The system of claim 62, wherein the isomerization catalyst is Pt / SAPO comprising 0.2 wt% Pt.

65. The system of any one of claims 59 to 64, further comprising: A third separator having an isomerized product inlet, a first recycle gas outlet, a C 16+ a hydrocarbon outlet and a purified aviation fuel outlet, wherein the isomerized product outlet of the isomerization reactor is coupled to the isomerized product inlet of the third separator.

66. The system of claim 65, wherein the first recycle gas outlet is coupled to the LP separated product inlet of the first separator.

67. The system of claim 65 or 66, further comprising: a fourth reducing gas feed; and A hydrocracking reactor comprising a hydrocracking catalyst, the hydrocracking reactor having a fourth reducing gas feed inlet, a first C 16+ Hydrocarbon inlet, second C 16+ a hydrocarbon inlet and a hydrocracked product outlet, wherein the fourth reducing gas feed is coupled to the fourth reducing gas feed inlet, the C 16+ The hydrocarbon outlet is coupled to the first C 16+ The hydrocarbon inlet, and the C of the third separator 16+ The hydrocarbon outlet is coupled to the second C 16+ Hydrocarbon inlet.

68. The system of claim 67, wherein the hydrocracking catalyst comprises a hydrocracking metal such as Pd, Pt, Ni, Co, Co-W, Ni-W, and Ni-Mo; and a hydrocracking support.

69. The system of claim 67, wherein the hydrocracking support comprises: A) one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten and tin, such as MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silicon carbide and TiO2; B) Carbon-based materials such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene and graphene oxide; C)SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2); D) aluminum-based materials such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, such as Y-type zeolite, β-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof, Optionally wherein the zeolite comprises a modifier such as Zn, Ga, Fe or other transition metals; and Optionally wherein the modifier is present in the form of a zeolite-supported metal or in the form of isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; Optionally wherein the hydrocracking support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine and / or sulfur.

70. The system of claim 68 or 69, wherein the hydrocracking metal comprises from about 0.5 wt% to about 40 wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst.

71. The system of claims 67 to 70, further comprising: a fourth separator having an inlet for the hydrocracked product, an outlet for the second recycle gas, and a C 18+ A hydrocarbon outlet, wherein the hydrocracked product outlet of the hydrocracking reactor is coupled to the hydrocracked product inlet of the third separator.

72. The system of claim 71, wherein the second recycle gas outlet is coupled to the LP separated product inlet of the first separator.

73. The system of any one of claims 1 to 72, further comprising an apparatus for carbon dioxide capture coupled to the first carbon source feed and / or the second carbon source feed.

74. A fuel composition prepared using the system of any one of claims 1 to 73.

75. A method for producing aviation fuel, the method comprising: contacting a first reducing gas and a first carbon source gas with a reduction catalyst to provide a paraffin product mixture comprising one or more paraffins; contacting a second reducing gas and a second carbon source gas with an aromatic catalyst to provide an aromatic product mixture comprising one or more aromatic hydrocarbons and / or cycloalkanes; The paraffinic product mixture and the aromatic product mixture are blended to provide a crude product mixture.

76. A method for producing aviation fuel, the method comprising: contacting a first reducing gas and a first carbon source gas with a paraffin catalyst to provide a paraffin product mixture comprising one or more paraffins; contacting a second reducing gas and a second carbon source gas with an aromatic catalyst to provide an aromatic product mixture comprising one or more aromatic hydrocarbons and / or cycloalkanes; The paraffinic product mixture and the aromatic product mixture are blended to provide a crude product mixture.

77. The method of claim 75 or 76, wherein the reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, and the paraffin catalyst comprises: one or more paraffinic metals; optionally one or more second elements selected from copper and zinc; and Optionally one or more Group VI, Group VII, Group VIII, Group IX, Group X or Group XI metal additives.

78. The method of claim 75 or 76, wherein the reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, and the paraffin catalyst comprises: copper; Zinc; one or more first elements, the one or more first elements being selected from iron or cobalt; oxygen; optionally aluminum; and Optionally one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals; wherein the one or more first elements are present in an amount of about 1 wt. % to about 40 wt. % of the total amount of the copper, the zinc, the cobalt, and the optional Group IA or Group IIA metal.

79. The method of any one of claims 75 to 78, wherein the reduced catalyst is a paraffin catalyst and the paraffin catalyst comprises a cobalt-embedded interconnected matrix of reduced copper metal nanoparticles and alumina-modified zinc oxide.

80. The method of claim 79, wherein the molar ratio of cobalt to copper to zinc (Co:Cu:Zn) is about 1:8.4:3.

3.

81. The method of any one of claims 75 to 80, wherein the reduced catalyst is a paraffin catalyst and the paraffin catalyst comprises an iron embedded interconnected matrix composed of reduced copper metal nanoparticles and alumina modified zinc oxide.

82. The method of claim 81, wherein the molar ratio of iron to copper to zinc (Fe:Cu:Zn) is about 1:2.3:2.

3.

83. The method of any one of claims 78, wherein the reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst and the paraffin catalyst comprises the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals.

84. The method of claim 75 or 76, wherein the reduction catalyst is an olefin catalyst, and the olefin catalyst comprises: iron; optionally alumina; Optionally, a first element selected from copper, zinc, cobalt or combinations thereof; and Optionally one or more second elements, the one or more second elements are selected from Group IA and Group IIA metals.

85. The method of claim 84, wherein the olefin catalyst further comprises an additive mixture comprising potassium, manganese, ruthenium, and MgO.

86. The method of claim 85, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises from about 1 wt% to about 10 wt% of the additive mixture.

87. The method of claim 84, wherein the olefin catalyst optionally further comprises Zr, Au, Cr, Ga, Mn, Ru, Ni, or a combination thereof.

88. The method of claim 87, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises: K, Li, Zr, Cs, Mg, Ca or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron; Au, Cu, Na, Cr, Al, Ga, Mn or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron; The molar ratio of Zn relative to iron is 0 to about 0.

50.

89. The process of claim 88, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron and Na in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron.

90. The process of claim 88 or 89, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises K at a molar ratio of about 0.04 relative to iron and Na at a molar ratio of about 0.006 relative to iron.

91. The method of claim 87, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises: K, Cs, Mg, Ca or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron; Na, Cu, Cr, Mn or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron; The molar ratio of Co, Ru, Ni or a combination thereof relative to iron is 0 to about 0.

50.

92. The process of claim 91 wherein the olefin catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.

20.

93. The process of claim 91 or 92, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio relative to iron of about 0.

05.

94. The process of any one of claims 91 to 93, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.

50.

95. The process of any one of claims 91 to 94, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio relative to iron of about 0.

14.

96. The process of claim 95 wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in an amount of about 0.14 molar ratio relative to iron and K in an amount of about 0.01 molar ratio relative to iron.

97. The method of any one of claims 84 to 96, wherein the iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), or a combination thereof.

98. The method of any one of claims 84 to 97, wherein the iron is in the form of iron oxide and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe3O4).

99. The method of any one of claims 84 to 97, wherein the iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is a combination of magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite (Fe2O3).

100. The method of any one of claims 75 to 99, wherein the reduced catalyst further comprises a reduced catalyst support.

101. The method of claim 100, wherein the reduced catalyst support comprises: A) one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten and tin, such as MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silicon carbide and TiO2; B) Carbon-based materials such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene and graphene oxide; C)SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2); D) Aluminum-based materials, such as alumina (e.g. γ -alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, such as Y-type zeolite, β-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof, Optionally wherein the zeolite comprises a modifier such as Zn, Ga, Fe or other transition metals; and Optionally wherein the modifier is present in the form of a zeolite-supported metal or in the form of isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; Optionally wherein the reduced catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine and / or sulfur.

102. The method of claim 100 or 101, wherein the reduced catalyst support is MCM-49.

103. The method of any one of claims 75 to 102, wherein contacting the first reducing gas and the first carbon source gas with the reduction catalyst occurs at a paraffin temperature of about 100°C to about 600°C.

104. The method of any one of claims 75 to 103, wherein the first reducing gas and the first carbon source gas with the reduction catalyst occurs at a paraffin pressure of about 50 psi to about 4000 psi.

105. The process of any one of claims 75 to 104, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises: One or more aromatic metals; Optionally one or more Group VI, Group VII, Group VIII, Group IX, Group X, Group XI or Group XIII aromatic metal additives; and Optionally a Group IA or Group IIA metal promoter.

106. The method of any one of claims 75 to 105, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises a mixed oxide component including iron and zinc; and a zeolite component comprising zeolite.

107. The method of claim 106, wherein the zeolite is ZSM-5.

108. The method of claim 106 or 107, wherein the zeolite component further comprises a modifier, such as Ga or Zn.

109. The method of claim 107, wherein the zeolite component comprises 0 wt% to about 2 wt% of the modifier.

110. The method of claim 108 or 109, wherein the zeolite component comprises 0.01 wt% to about 2 wt% of the modifier.

111. The method of any one of claims 108 to 110, wherein the zeolite component comprises 0.1 wt% to about 1.5 wt% of the modifier.

112. The method of any one of claims 108 to 111, wherein the zeolite component comprises 0.5 wt% to about 1 wt% of the modifier.

113. The method of any one of claims 106 to 112, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 10 wt% to about 90 wt% of the mixed oxide component and from about 90 wt% to about 10 wt% of the zeolite component.

114. The method of any one of claims 106 to 113, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 25 wt% to about 75 wt% of the mixed oxide component and from about 75 wt% to about 25 wt% of the zeolite component.

115. The method of any one of claims 106 to 114, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 40 wt% to about 60 wt% of the mixed oxide component and from about 60 wt% to about 40 wt% of the zeolite component.

116. The method of claims 106 to 115, wherein the mixed oxide component comprises: iron; Zinc in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.50 relative to iron; Na, K, Cs, Mg, Ca or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.10 relative to iron; The molar ratio of Cu, Cr, Mn or a combination thereof relative to iron is 0 to about 0.

60.

117. The method of claim 116, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.

10.

118. The method of claim 116 or 117, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises K at a molar ratio relative to iron of about 0.

036.

119. The method of claim 105, wherein: The one or more aromatic metals include a first aromatic metal and a second aromatic metal; The first metal is zinc; and The second metal is selected from the group consisting of zirconium, chromium, aluminum and copper.

120. The method of claim 105 or 119, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises an aromatic catalyst support.

121. The method of claim 120, wherein the aromatic catalyst support comprises: A) one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten and tin, such as MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silicon carbide and TiO2; B) Carbon-based materials such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene and graphene oxide; C)SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2); D) aluminum-based materials such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, such as Y-type zeolite, β-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof, Optionally wherein the zeolite comprises a modifier such as Zn, Ga, Fe or other transition metals; and Optionally wherein the modifier is present in the form of a zeolite-supported metal or in the form of isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; Optionally wherein the aromatic catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine and / or sulfur.

122. The method of claim 120 or 121, wherein the aromatic catalyst support is ZSM-5.

123. The method of any one of claims 119 to 122, wherein the one or more aromatic metal additives, when present, are selected from gallium, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, manganese, rhenium, iron, ruthenium, osmium, cobalt, rhodium, iridium, nickel, palladium, platinum, copper, silver, gold and aluminum.

124. The method of any one of claims 119 to 123, wherein the one or more aromatic metal additives are present, and wherein the one or more aromatic metal additives is gallium.

125. The method of any one of claims 119 to 124, wherein the metal promoter is selected from lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, magnesium, calcium and cesium.

126. The method of any one of claims 119 to 125, wherein the first aromatic metal and the second metal are present in a first metal ratio of about 1:5 to about 5:

1.

127. The method of claim 105, wherein: The aromatic metal is zinc; the one or more aromatic metal additives are present, and wherein the one or more aromatic metal additives is gallium; and The aromatic catalyst comprises an aromatic catalyst support, wherein the aromatic catalyst support is ZSM-5.

128. The method of any one of claims 75 to 127, wherein contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with the aromatic catalyst occurs at an aromatic temperature of about 100°C to about 450°C.

129. The method of any one of claims 75 to 128, wherein contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with the aromatic catalyst occurs at an aromatic pressure of about 50 psi to about 1000 psi.

130. The method of any one of claims 75 to 129, wherein the crude product mixture further comprises unreacted carbon source and / or reducing gas.

131. The method of claim 130, wherein the method further comprises separating unreacted CO2 and / or reducing gas from the crude product mixture to provide a degassed crude product mixture.

132. The process of claim 131, wherein the degassed crude product mixture comprises C 1-4 Hydrocarbon, C 5-8 Hydrocarbon, C 9-15 Hydrocarbons and C 16+ hydrocarbon.

133. The method of claim 131 or 132, wherein the separation comprises high pressure separation, low pressure separation, or a combination thereof.

134. The method of claim 133, wherein the separation comprises a high pressure separation and a low pressure separation.

135. The method of any one of claims 131 to 134, further comprising combining the unreacted CO2 and / or reducing gas with one or more of the first reducing gas, the first carbon source gas, the second reducing gas, and the second carbon source gas.

136. The method of any one of claims 131 to 135, further comprising: The degassed product mixture is purified to provide a 9-15 A purified product mixture of hydrocarbons.

137. The method of claim 136, wherein the purification comprises a first separation and a second separation.

138. The method of claim 137, wherein the first separation comprises separating the degassed crude product mixture into: Contains C 1-4 a first lower carbon fraction of hydrocarbons; and Contains C 5-8 Hydrocarbon, C 9-15 Hydrocarbons and C 16+ The first higher carbon fraction of hydrocarbons.

139. The method of claim 137 or 138, wherein the second separation comprises separating the first higher carbon fraction into: Contains the C 5-8 The second lower carbon fraction of hydrocarbons; Contains the C 9-15 said purified product mixture of hydrocarbons; and Contains the C 16+ The second higher carbon fraction of hydrocarbons.

140. The method of claim 139, further comprising: contacting the purified product mixture and a third reducing gas with an isomerization catalyst to provide an isomerized product mixture, the isomerized product mixture comprising: Another C 1-8 hydrocarbon; Another C 9-15 hydrocarbons, the additional C 9-15 Hydrocarbons include straight chain alkanes, branched chain alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatics, and cycloparaffins; and Another C 16+ hydrocarbon.

141. The method of claim 140, wherein the isomerization catalyst comprises an isomerization metal such as Pd, Pt, Ni-Co, Ni-W, and Ni-Mo; and an isomerization catalyst support.

142. The method of claim 141, wherein the isomerization catalyst support comprises: A) one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten and tin, such as MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silicon carbide and TiO2; B) Carbon-based materials such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene and graphene oxide; C)SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2); D) aluminum-based materials such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, such as Y-type zeolite, β-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof, Optionally wherein the zeolite comprises a modifier such as Zn, Ga, Fe or other transition metals; and Optionally wherein the modifier is present in the form of a zeolite-supported metal or in the form of isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; Optionally wherein the isomerization catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine and / or sulfur.

143. The process of claim 141 or 142, wherein the isomerization catalyst is selected from the group consisting of Pt / ZrO2 / WO3, Pt / ZrWO4, Pt / SiAlO x , Pt / SO4-ZrO2, Pt / Z SM5, Pt / Z SM22, Pt / SAPO, Ni-W / SiAlO x , Ni-W / SO4-ZrO2, Ni-W / ZSM5, Ni-W / ZSM22 and Ni-W / SAPO.

144. The process of any one of claims 141 to 143, wherein the isomerization catalyst is Pt / ZrO2 / WO3.

145. The process of claim 143, wherein the isomerization catalyst is Pt / SAPO comprising 0.2 wt% Pt.

146. The method of any one of claims 141 to 145, wherein contacting the purified product mixture and the third reducing gas with the isomerization catalyst occurs at an isomerization temperature of about 50°C to about 450°C.

147. The method of any one of claims 141 to 146, wherein contacting the purified product mixture and the third reducing gas with the isomerization catalyst occurs at an isomerization pressure of about 50 psi to about 1000 psi.

148. The process of any one of claims 140 to 147, further comprising a third separation, wherein the third separation comprises separating the isomerized product mixture into: Contains the additional C 1-8 a first recycle gas mixture of hydrocarbons; Contains the additional C 16+ a third higher carbon fraction of hydrocarbons; and Contains the additional C 9-15 A purified aviation fuel of hydrocarbons, the additional C 9-15 Hydrocarbons include straight chain alkanes, branched chain alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons, and cycloparaffins.

149. The method of claim 148, wherein the purified aviation fuel comprises from about 10% to about 20% aromatics.

150. The method of claim 148 or 149, further comprising: contacting the second higher carbon fraction and / or the third higher carbon fraction and a fourth reducing gas with a hydrocracking catalyst to provide a hydrocracked product mixture, the hydrocracked product mixture comprising: C 1-17 Hydrocarbons; and C 18+ hydrocarbon.

151. The process of claim 150, wherein the hydrocracking catalyst comprises a hydrocracking metal such as Pd, Pt, Ni, Co, Co-W, Ni-W, and Ni-Mo; and a hydrocracking support.

152. The process of claim 151, wherein the hydrocracking support comprises: A) one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten and tin, such as MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silicon carbide and TiO2; B) Carbon-based materials such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene and graphene oxide; C)SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-Ti02); D) aluminum-based materials such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, such as Y-type zeolite, β-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof, Optionally wherein the zeolite comprises a modifier such as Zn, Ga, Fe or other transition metals; and Optionally wherein the modifier is present in the form of a zeolite-supported metal or in the form of isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; Optionally wherein the hydrocracking support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine and / or sulfur.

153. The process of claim 151 or 152, wherein the hydrocracking metal comprises from about 0.5 wt% to about 40 wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst.

154. The process of any one of claims 150 to 153, further comprising a fourth separation, wherein the fourth separation comprises separating the hydrocracked product mixture into: Contains the C 18+ a fourth higher carbon fraction of hydrocarbons; and Contains the C 1-17 A second recycle gas mixture of hydrocarbons.

155. The method of claim 154, further comprising combining the first recycle gas mixture and / or the second recycle gas mixture with the degassed crude product mixture.

156. The method of any one of claims 75 to 155, further comprising capturing a carbon source gas from a gas feed stream.

157. A method according to any one of claims 75 to 156, wherein the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas and / or the fourth reducing gas are independently selected from H2, hydrocarbons, synthesis gas (CO / H2), or a gas that is or is derived from flare gas, waste gas or natural gas.

158. The method of any one of claims 75 to 157, wherein the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas and / or the fourth reducing gas is H2.

159. The method of any one of claims 75 to 157, wherein the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas and / or the fourth reducing gas is synthesis gas.

160. The method according to any one of claims 75 to 157, wherein the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas and / or the fourth reducing gas are hydrocarbons, such as CH4, ethane, propane or butane.

161. The method of any one of claims 75 to 157, wherein the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas and / or the fourth reducing gas is or is derived from a flare gas, an exhaust gas or a natural gas.

162. The method of any one of claims 75 to 157, wherein the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas and / or the fourth reducing gas is CH4.

163. The method of any one of claims 75 to 162, wherein the first carbon source gas and / or the second carbon source gas is CO2.

164. The method of any one of claims 75 to 162, wherein the first carbon source gas and / or the second carbon source gas is CO.

165. The method of any one of claims 75 to 164, wherein a molar ratio of the first reducing gas to the first carbon source gas is from about 10:1 to about 1:

10.

166. The method of any one of claims 75 to 165, wherein the molar ratio of the first reducing gas to the first carbon source gas is about 5:1 to about 0.5:

1.

167. The method of any one of claims 75 to 166, wherein the molar ratio of the second reducing gas to the second carbon source gas is from about 10:1 to about 1:

10.

168. The method of any one of claims 75 to 167, wherein the molar ratio of the second reducing gas to the second carbon source gas is about 5:1 to about 0.5:

1.

169. A fuel composition prepared by the method of any one of claims 75 to 168.

170. A fuel composition comprising: Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; Cycloalkanes; normal paraffins; and Isoparaffins; wherein the composition comprises less than about 1 wt % polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; and the fuel composition is prepared by a method comprising: contacting a first reducing gas and a first carbon source gas with a reduction catalyst to provide a paraffin product mixture comprising one or more paraffins; contacting a second reducing gas and a second carbon source gas with an aromatic catalyst to provide an aromatic product mixture comprising one or more aromatic hydrocarbons and / or cycloalkanes; The paraffinic product mixture and the aromatic product mixture are blended to provide a crude product mixture.

171. A fuel composition comprising: Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; Cycloalkanes; normal paraffins; and Isoparaffins; wherein the composition comprises less than about 1 wt % polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

172. The fuel composition of claim 171, wherein the composition comprises less than about 5 wt% tetralin and indan.

173. The fuel composition of claim 171 or 172, wherein the composition comprises less than about 1 wt% tetralin and indan.

174. The fuel composition of claim 171 or 172, wherein the composition comprises from 0 wt% to about 5 wt% tetralin and indan.

175. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 174, wherein the composition comprises from 0 wt% to about 1 wt% tetralin and indan.

176. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 175, wherein the composition is substantially free of tetralin and indan.

177. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 176, wherein the composition comprises less than about 0.5 wt% polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

178. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 177, wherein the composition comprises from 0 wt% to about 0.5 wt% polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

179. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 178, wherein the composition is substantially free of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

180. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 179, wherein the composition comprises from about 5 wt% to about 25 wt% of single ring aromatics.

181. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 180, wherein the composition comprises from about 8 wt% to about 15 wt% of single ring aromatics.

182. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 181, wherein the composition comprises about 14.5 wt% single ring aromatics.

183. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 182, wherein the composition comprises from about 15 wt% to about 65 wt% cycloalkanes.

184. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 183, wherein the composition comprises from about 15 wt% to about 35 wt% cycloalkanes.

185. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 184, wherein the composition comprises about 29 wt% cycloalkanes.

186. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 185, wherein the composition comprises from about 5 wt% to about 50 wt% normal paraffins.

187. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 186, wherein the composition comprises from about 30 wt% to about 50 wt% normal paraffins.

188. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 187, wherein the composition comprises about 47.7 wt% normal paraffins.

189. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 188, wherein the composition comprises from about 5 wt% to about 40 wt% isoparaffins.

190. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 189, wherein the composition comprises from about 5 wt% to about 15 wt% isoparaffins.

191. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 190, wherein the composition comprises about 8.8 wt% isoparaffins.

192. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 191, wherein the composition complies with ASTM D4054-Grade 1.

193. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 192, wherein the total acidity of the composition is less than about 0.10 mg KOH / g.

194. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 193, wherein the total acidity of the composition is from about 0.05 mg KOH / g to about 0.10 mg KOH / g.

195. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 194, wherein the total acidity of the composition is about 0.07 mg KOH / g.

196. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 195, wherein the composition comprises less than about 0.3 wt% total sulfur.

197. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 196, wherein the composition comprises less than about 0.003 wt% mercaptan sulfur.

198. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 197, wherein the flash point of the composition is at least about 38°C.

199. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 198, wherein the composition has a flash point of about 38°C to about 370°C.

200. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 199, wherein the flash point of the composition is about 42°C.

201. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 200, wherein the density of the composition at 15°C is about 775 kg / m 3 About 840kg / m 3 .

202. according to any one of claims 171 to 201 fuel composition, the density of wherein said composition is about 780kg / m 3 .

203. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 202, wherein the freezing point of the composition is below about -40°C.

204. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 203, wherein the freezing point of the composition is about -51°C.

205. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 204, wherein the composition has a viscosity of less than about 8.0 cSt at -20°C.

206. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 205, wherein the composition has a viscosity of less than about 12 mm2 / s at -40°C.

207. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 206, wherein the viscosity of the composition at -20°C is about 3.2 square millimeters per second.

208. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 207, wherein the net heat of combustion of the composition is at least about 42.8 MJ / kg.

209. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 208, wherein the net heat of combustion of the composition is about 43.4 MJ / kg.

210. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 209, wherein the smoke point of the composition is at least about 18 mm.

211. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 210, wherein the smoke point of the composition is at least about 25 mm.

212. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 211, wherein the smoke point of the composition is about 36 mm.

213. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 212, wherein the composition has a filter pressure drop of less than about 25 mm Hg.

214. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 213, wherein the filter pressure drop of the composition is about 0 mm Hg.

215. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 214, wherein the composition has a pipe deposit rating of less than about 3, wherein there is substantially no peacock blue or off-color deposits.

216. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 215, wherein the pipe deposit rating of the composition is 1 VTR color code.

217. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 216, wherein the composition has a lubricity of less than about 0.85 mm wear scar diameter (WSD).

218. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 217, wherein the composition has a lubricity of about 0.52 mm WSD.

219. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 218, wherein the composition complies with ASTM D1655.

220. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 219, wherein the composition comprises less than about 1 ppm of sulfur-containing impurities.

221. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 220, wherein the composition is substantially free of sulfur-containing impurities.

222. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 221, wherein the single ring aromatic hydrocarbons are not petroleum derived.

223. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 223, wherein the monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are derived from CO2.

224. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 224, wherein the monocyclic aromatics, the cycloalkanes, the normal paraffins and the isoparaffins are not petroleum derived.

225. A fuel composition according to any one of claims 171 to 225, wherein the monocyclic aromatics, the cycloalkanes, the normal paraffins and the isoparaffins are derived from CO2.

226. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 226, further comprising at least one fuel additive.

227. An olefin catalyst comprising: iron; optionally alumina; A first element, the first element is selected from K, Li, Zr, Cs, Mg, Ca or a combination thereof; and One or more second elements, the one or more second elements are selected from Au, Cu, Na, Cr, Al, Ga, Mn Co, Ru, Ni or a combination thereof.

228. The olefin catalyst of claim 228, comprising: iron; K, Li, Zr, Cs, Mg, Ca or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron; Au, Cu, Na, Cr, Al, Ga, Mn or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron; The molar ratio of Zn relative to iron is 0 to about 0.

50.

229. The olefin catalyst of claim 229, wherein the catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron and Na in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron.

230. The olefin catalyst of claim 230, wherein the catalyst comprises K at a molar ratio of about 0.04 relative to iron and Na at a molar ratio of about 0.006 relative to iron.

231. The olefin catalyst of claim 228, comprising: iron; K, Cs, Mg, Ca or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron; Na, Cu, Cr, Mn or a combination thereof in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron; The molar ratio of Co, Ru, Ni or a combination thereof relative to iron is 0 to about 0.

50.

232. The olefin catalyst of claim 232, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.

20.

233. The olefin catalyst of claim 232 or 233, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio relative to iron of about 0.

05.

234. The olefin catalyst of any one of claims 232 to 234, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.

50.

235. The olefin catalyst of claim 235, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio relative to iron of about 0.

14.

236. The olefin catalyst of claim 236, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio of about 0.14 relative to iron and K in a molar ratio of about 0.01 relative to iron.

237. The olefin catalyst of claims 228 to 237, wherein the iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), or a combination thereof.

238. An olefin catalyst according to any one of claims 228 to 238, wherein the iron is in the form of iron oxide and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe3O4).

239. The olefin catalyst of any one of claims 228 to 238, wherein the iron is in the form of iron oxide and the iron oxide is hematite (Fe2O3).

240. The olefin catalyst of any one of claims 228 to 238, wherein the iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is a combination of magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite (Fe2O3).

241. The catalyst of any one of claims 1 to 241, wherein the olefin catalyst further comprises a reduced catalyst support.

242. The catalyst of claim 242, wherein the reduced catalyst support comprises: A) one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten and tin, such as MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silicon carbide and TiO2; B) Carbon-based materials such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene and graphene oxide; C)SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstate titanium dioxide and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2); D) aluminum-based materials such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, such as Y-type zeolite, β-zeolite, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof, Optionally wherein the zeolite comprises a modifier such as Zn, Ga, Fe or other transition metals; and Optionally wherein the modifier is present in the form of a zeolite-supported metal or in the form of isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; Optionally wherein the reduced catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine and / or sulfur.

243. The catalyst of claim 241 or 242, wherein the reduced catalyst support is MCM-49.

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