Relay attack mitigation techniques

Abstract

Methods and systems for communicating with an access control system are provided. The methods and systems receive, by a first device, a request to establish a connection with a second device to obtain access to a resource protected by the first device, the connection being secured at an application layer by a first set of encryption keys. The methods and systems determine whether a physical link layer (LL) pairing between the first device and the second device is successful, the LL pairing being based on a second set of encryption keys that are separate from the first set of encryption keys. The methods and systems selectively process access control information in response to determining whether the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.

Description

RELAY ATTACK MITIGATION TECHNIQUESBACKGROUND

[0001] Access control readers are widely used in various settings to control access to restricted areas. These readers are typically connected to a server that manages access control policies and configurations. In order to securely communicate with such readers, user devices employ various encryption protocols.SUMMARY

[0002] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method including: receiving, by a first device, a request to establish a connection with a second device to obtain access to a resource protected by the first device, the connection being secured at an application layer by a first set of encryption keys; determining whether a physical link layer (LL) pairing between the first device and the second device is successful, with the LL pairing being based on a second set of encryption keys that are separate from the first set of encryption keys; and selectively processing access control information in response to determining whether the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.

[0003] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, wherein the first device is associated with a physical access control system (PACS) that physically secures the resource, and wherein the access control information includes a digital credential for obtaining access to the resource.

[0004] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, wherein the second set of encryption keys is derived out of band (OOB) relative to the first set of encryption keys.

[0005] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, wherein the first device and the second device derive the second set of encryption keys which includes identical encryption keys using registration information exchanged prior to receiving the request.

[0006] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, wherein the second set of encryption keys includes one or more long term keys (LTKs) associated with a Bluetooth protocol.

[0007] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, wherein the connection established between the first device and the second device includes a Bluetooth connection.

[0008] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, wherein determining whether the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful includes: exchanging the one or more LTKs between the first device and the second device; establishing a LL security over the Bluetooth connection, with the establishing of the LL security including exchanging one or more LL packets each including an authentication cryptogram; and verifying authenticity of the one or more LL packets to determine that the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.

[0009] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, wherein determining whether the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful includes: causing the first device to perform an application layer command and response exchange with the second device to verify that the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.

[0010] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, further including: establishing a different set of physical LL keys including the second set of encryption keys for each connection between the first device and the second device.

[0011] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, further including: generating one or more session keys based on the first set of keys for the first device and the second device; and using the one or more session keys to enable the first device and the second device to independently derive the second set of keys.

[0012] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, further including: generating a random string of data by the first device; sending the random string of data to the second device; and using the random string of data to enable the first device and the second device to independently derive the second set of keys.

[0013] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, further including: receiving, by the first device, a random string of data from the second device; and using the random string of data to enable the first device and the second device to independently derive the second set of keys.

[0014] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, further including: receiving, by the first device, the access control information from the second device over the application layer of the connection; temporarily storing the access control information in a memory of the first device; after receiving the access control information, performing an OOB pairing on the physical LL based on the second set of encryption keys; and in response to determining that the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful, releasing the access control information, that was previously received from the first device, from the memory to control access to the resource.

[0015] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, wherein the access control information includes a credential, further including: enabling access to the resource in response to determining, based on processing the access control information, that the credential is authorized to access the resource.

[0016] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, further including: performing an out-of-band (OOB) pairing on the physical LL based on the second set of encryption keys; and in response to determining that the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful, transmitting, by the first device to the second device, a request for the access control information.

[0017] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, further including: receiving, by the first device, the access control information from the second device over the application layer of the connection in response to transmitting the request for the access control information; and controlling access to the resource in response to determining that the access control information is authorized to access the resource.

[0018] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a method, further including: transmitting the access control information to a remote server from the first device in response to determining that the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.

[0019] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a system including: one or more processors coupled to a memory including non-transitory computer instructions that, when executed by the one or more processors, cause the one or more processors to perform operations including: receiving, by a first device, a request toestablish a connection with a second device to obtain access to a resource protected by the first device, the connection being secured at an application layer by a first set of encryption keys; determining whether a physical link layer (LL) pairing between the first device and the second device is successful, with the LL pairing being based on a second set of encryption keys that are separate from the first set of encryption keys; and selectively processing access control information in response to determining whether the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.

[0020] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a system, wherein the first device is associated with a PACS that physically secures the resource, and wherein the access control information includes a digital credential for obtaining access to the resource.

[0021] In some aspects, the techniques described herein relate to a non-transitory computer readable medium including non-transitory computer-readable instructions that, when executed by one or more processors, configure the one or more processors to perform operations including: receiving, by a first device, a request to establish a connection with a second device to obtain access to a resource protected by the first device, the connection being secured at an application layer by a first set of encryption keys; determining whether a physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful, with the LL pairing being based on a second set of encryption keys that are separate from the first set of encryption keys; and selectively processing access control information in response to determining whether the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0022] FIG. l is a block diagram of an example access control system, according to some examples.

[0023] FIGS. 2 A and 2B illustrate example diagrams of a flow representing LL secured authentication, according to some examples.

[0024] FIG. 3 is a flowchart illustrating example operations of the access control system, according to some examples.

[0025] FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating an example software architecture, which may be used in conjunction with various hardware architectures herein described.

[0026] FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating components of a machine, according to some examples.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0027] Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) relay attacks pose a significant security threat to physical access control systems, which include technologies such as card readers, biometric scanners, and electronic locks. These attacks exploit vulnerabilities in the communication between the access device and the reader. Typically, an attacker intercepts the signals transmitted by an access card or biometric scanner using a device positioned between the legitimate user and the access control system. The intercepted data is then relayed to an accomplice equipped with a device near the access control system, who transmits the data to the reader as if it were from a legitimate source. Consequently, the system grants access, mistakenly identifying the request as authentic and allowing unauthorized entry.

[0028] The vulnerabilities exploited in these attacks often include unsecured wireless communications and lack of data encryption, making it easier for attackers to capture and relay information. Additionally, these systems frequently fail to account for the time delay introduced by the relay of the signal, which is a factor that could be used to detect such attacks.

[0029] The present disclosure provides a mechanism to prevent certain types of relay attacks. Specifically, the disclosed examples utilize a physical LL pairing to condition access and control of access control information exchanged over the application layer or application level. The disclosed examples can establish a LL pairing in an OOB approach. If the LL pairing is successful, then the disclosed examples process access control information that was either previously exchanged over the application layer or is subsequently received over the application layer. While application layer information can be relayed by various attacker devices, LL pairing is specific to the physical devices and is thus not prone or susceptible to relay attacks. In this way, a more secure communication protocol is achieved by conditioning the processing of access control information that is transmitted or exchanged over the application layer on LL pairing (which is not prone or susceptible to relay attacks). This improves the overall security of access control systems, such as a PACS.

[0030] In some examples, the disclosed techniques receive, by a first device, a request to establish a connection with a second device to obtain access to a resource protected by the first device, the connection being secured at an application layer by a first set of encryption keys. The disclosed techniques determine whether a physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful, with the LL pairing being based on a second set of encryption keys that are separate from the first set of encryption keys. The disclosed techniques selectively process access control information in response to determining whether the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.

[0031] FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing an example system 100, according to various examples. The system 100 can be an access control system that includes a client device 120; one or more access control devices 110 that control access to a protected asset or secure resource, such as through a lockable door; and a server / controller 140 that are communicatively coupled over a network 130 (e.g., LAN, WAN such as the Internet, WiFi, BLE, ultra-wideband (UWB) communication protocol, telephony network, or other wired or wireless communication protocols).

[0032] The client device 120 and the access control devices 110 can be communicatively coupled via electronic messages (e.g., packets exchanged over the Internet, BLE, UWB, WiFi Direct, NFC, or any other protocol). While FIG. 1 illustrates a single access control device 110 and a single client device 120, it is understood that a plurality of access control devices 110 and a plurality of client devices 120 can be included in the system 100 in other examples. As used herein, the term “client device” may refer to any machine that interfaces to a communications network (such as network 130) to exchange credentials with an access control device 110, the server / controller 140, another client device 120, or any other component to obtain access to the asset or resource protected by the access control device 110. In some examples, the client device 120 can additionally or alternatively communicate directly with, e.g., an access control device or another client device 120. The term “first device,” as referred to here, can include the client device 120, and the term “second device” can include the controller 140. In some cases, the roles can be reversed where the first device can include the controller 140 and the second device can include the client device 120.

[0033] In some cases, some or all of the components and functionality of the server / controller 140 can be included in the client device 120 and / or the access control device 110. A client device 120 may be, but is not limited to, a mobile phone, desktop computer, laptop, portable digital assistant (PDA), smart phone, a wearable device (e.g., a smart watch), tablet, ultrabook, netbook, laptop, multi-processor system, microprocessor-based or programmable consumer electronics, or any other communication device that a user may use to access a network.

[0034] The access control device 110 can include an access reader device (also referred to as an access control reader) connected to a secure / protected resource (e.g., a door locking mechanism or backend server) that controls the secure / protected resource (e.g., door locking mechanism). The resource associated with the access control device 110 can include a door lock, an ignition system for a vehicle, or any other device that grants or denies access to a physical component or that can be operated to grant or deny access to the physical component. For example, in the case of a door lock, the access control device 110 can deny access, in which case the door lock remains locked and the door cannot be opened; or can grant access, in which case the door lock becomes unlocked to allow the door to be opened. As another example, in the case of an ignition system, the access control device 110 can deny access, in which case the vehicle ignition system remains disabled and the vehicle cannot be started; or can grant access, in which case the vehicle ignition becomes enabled to allow the vehicle to be started.

[0035] Physical access control covers a range of systems and methods to govern access, for example by people, to secure areas or secure assets. Physical access control includes identification of authorized users or devices (e.g., vehicles, drones, etc.) and actuation of a gate, door, or other component used to secure an area or actuation of a control mechanism, e.g., a physical or electronic / software control mechanism, permitting access to a secure asset. The access control device 110 forms part of a PACS, which can include a reader (e.g., an online or offline reader) that may hold authorization data (also referred to access control information) and can be capable of determining whether credentials (e.g., from credential or key devices such as radio frequency identification (RFID) chips in cards, fobs, or personal electronic devices such as mobile phones) are authorized for an actuator or control mechanism (e.g., door lock, door opener, software control mechanism, turning off an alarm, etc.), or a PACS can include a host server to whichreaders and actuators are connected (e.g., via a controller) in a centrally managed configuration.

[0036] In centrally managed configurations, readers can obtain credentials from credential or key devices and pass those credentials to the PACS host server or headend system. The readers can send the credentials over a wired or wireless link. The host server then determines whether the credentials authorize access to the secure area or secure asset and commands the actuator or other control mechanism accordingly by sending an allow / deny message back to the reader again over the wired or wireless link. While examples in physical access control are used herein, the disclosure applies equally to logical access control system (LACS) use cases (e.g., logical access to personal electronic devices, rider identification in transport services, access and asset control in unmanned stores, access to certain files, and so forth).

[0037] In general, the access control device 110 can include one or more of a memory, a processor, one or more antennas, a communication module, a network interface device, a user interface, and a power source or supply. The memory of the access control device 110 can be used in connection with the execution of application programming or instructions by the processor of the access control device 110, and for the temporary or long-term storage of program instructions or instruction sets and / or credential or authorization data, such as credential data, credential authorization data, or access control data or instructions. For example, the memory can contain executable instructions that are used by the processor to run other components of access control device 110 and / or to make access determinations based on credential or authorization data. The memory of the access control device 110 can comprise a computer readable medium that can be any medium that can contain, store, communicate, or transport data, program code, or instructions for use by or in connection with access control device 110. The computer readable medium can be, for example, but is not limited to, an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, or semiconductor system, apparatus, or device. More specific examples of suitable computer readable medium include, but are not limited to, an electrical connection having one or more wires or a tangible storage medium such as a portable computer diskette, a hard disk, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM or Flash memory), Dynamic RAM (DRAM), any solid-state storage device ingeneral, a compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), or other optical or magnetic storage device. Computer-readable media includes, but is not to be confused with, computer-readable storage medium, which is intended to cover all physical, non- transitory, or similar examples of computer-readable media.

[0038] The processor of the access control device 110 can correspond to one or more computer processing devices or resources. For instance, the processor can be provided as silicon, as a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), an Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC), any other type of Integrated Circuit (IC) chip, a collection of IC chips, or the like. As a more specific example, the processor can be provided as a microprocessor, Central Processing Unit (CPU), or plurality of microprocessors or CPUs that are configured to execute instructions sets stored in an internal memory and / or memory of the access control device 110.

[0039] The antenna of the access control device 110 can correspond to one or multiple antennas and can be configured to provide for wireless communications between access control device 110 and a credential or key device (e.g., client device 120). The antenna can be arranged to operate using one or more wireless communication protocols and operating frequencies including, but not limited to, the IEEE 802.15.1, Bluetooth, BLE, NFC, ZigBee, Global System for Mobile communications (GSM), Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), Wi-Fi, RF, UWB, and the like. By way of example, the antenna(s) can be radio frequency (RF) antenna(s), and as such, may transmit / receive RF signals through free-space to be received / transferred by a credential or key device having an RF transceiver.

[0040] A communication module or component of the access control device 110 can be configured to communicate according to any suitable communications protocol with one or more different systems or devices either remote or local to access control device 110, such as one or more client devices 120 and / or server / controller 140. In some cases, the communication module or component of the access control device 110 is configured to perform the disclosed authentication protocol. Namely, the communication module can be implemented as part of the access control device 110 and / or the client device 120 to perform the LL secured authentication protocol, discussed in connection with FIG. 2. The communication module or component can perform operations to exchange messages generated by an application layer and can also perform operations to exchange messagesgenerated by the physical LL of the access control device 110. In some cases, the messages can be generated by the LL independently and separately from messages generated by the application layer.

[0041] The application layer and the LL are two distinct layers within the network stack, each serving unique functions in the process of data communication. The application layer, which is the topmost layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, directly interacts with end-user software applications. It provides protocols that allow software to send and receive information and present meaningful data to users. Examples of application layer protocols include HTTP for web browsing, SMTP for email, and FTP for file transfers and access control application information. This layer is used for managing user interactions and ensuring that data is presented in a user-friendly format.

[0042] The LL, also known as the data link layer, is closer to the physical aspect of network communication, sitting just above the physical layer. Its primary role is to facilitate the transfer of data between two directly connected nodes. It is responsible for formatting of data into frames, error checking, and controlling the flow of data to prevent collisions. Protocols at the LL, such as Ethernet, BLE (Bluetooth), and Wi-Fi, are responsible for defining the rules by which data is transmitted over physical connections. The LL ensures that the data transferred over the physical medium is organized and error-free, making it a fundamental component for reliable network communication. The LL can also perform physical LL pairing between two devices using a separate encryption protocol and encryption keys than the application layer.

[0043] In some cases, the communication module or component uses a same wired or wireless link between the access control device 110 and the controller 140 for all the communication modes. In some cases, the communication module uses one wired or wireless link between the access control device 110 and the controller 140 to communicate access control information and uses a different wired or wireless link to communicate or receive configuration information updates from the controller 140 over an Internet-Protocol (IP) communication mode.

[0044] The network interface device of the access control device 110 includes hardware to facilitate communications with other devices, such as a one or more client devices 120 and / or server / controller 140 (e.g., a PACS server), over a communication network, suchas network 130, utilizing any one of a number of transfer protocols (e.g., frame relay, IP, transmission control protocol (TCP), user datagram protocol (UDP), HTTP, etc.). Example communication networks can include a LAN, a WAN, a packet data network (e.g., the Internet), mobile telephone networks (e.g., cellular networks), Plain Old Telephone (POTS) networks, wireless data networks (e.g., IEEE 802.11 family of standards known as Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.16 family of standards known as WiMax), IEEE 802.15.4 family of standards, and peer-to-peer (P2P) networks, among others. In some examples, network interface device can include an Ethernet port or other physical jack, a Wi-Fi card, a Network Interface Card (NIC), a cellular interface (e.g., antenna, filters, and associated circuitry), or the like. In some examples, network interface device can include a plurality of antennas to wirelessly communicate using at least one of singleinput multiple-output (SIMO), multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), or multiple-input single-output (MISO) techniques. Some portions of the communication module / component can be implemented or performed by the network interface device.

[0045] A user interface of the access control device 110 can include one or more input devices and / or display devices. Examples of suitable user input devices that can be included in the user interface include, without limitation, one or more buttons, a keyboard, a mouse, a touch-sensitive surface, a stylus, a camera, a microphone, and so forth. Examples of suitable user output devices that can be included in the user interface include, without limitation, one or more LEDs, an LCD panel, a display screen, a touchscreen, one or more lights, a speaker, and so forth. It should be appreciated that the user interface can also include a combined user input and user output device, such as a touch-sensitive display or the like.

[0046] The network 130 may include, or operate in conjunction with, an ad hoc network, an intranet, an extranet, a virtual private network (VPN), a LAN, a wireless network, a wireless LAN (WLAN), a WAN, a wireless WAN (WWAN), a metropolitan area network (MAN), BLE, UWB, the Internet, a portion of the Internet, a portion of the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), a POTS network, a cellular telephone network, a wireless network, a Wi-Fi® network, another type of network, or a combination of two or more such networks. For example, a network or a portion of a network may include a wireless or cellular network and the coupling may be a CDMA connection, a GSM connection, or other type of cellular or wireless coupling. In thisexample, the coupling may implement any of a variety of types of data transfer technology, such as Single Carrier Radio Transmission Technology (IxRTT), Evolution- Data Optimized (EVDO) technology, General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) technology, Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) technology, third Generation Partnership Project (3 GPP) including 3G, fourth generation wireless (4G) networks, fifth generation wireless (5G) networks, Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), High Speed Packet Access (HSPA), Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX), Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard, others defined by various standard setting organizations, other short range or long range protocols, or other data transfer technology.

[0047] In some examples, as the client device 120 approaches the access control device 110 (e.g., comes within range of a BLE communication protocol), the client device 120 transmits credentials of the client device 120 over the network 130 through the application layer. In some cases, the access control device 110 receives a request to establish a connection with the client device 120 to obtain access to a resource protected by the access control device 110. The connection can be secured at an application layer by a first set of encryption keys. The access control device 110 can determine whether a physical LL pairing between the access control device 110 and the client device 120 is successful, where the LL pairing is based on a second set of encryption keys (specifically derived for or by the LL) that are separate from the first set of encryption keys (specifically generated by the application layer). The access control device 110 selectively processes access control information (e.g., the credential provided over the application layer) in response to determining whether the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.

[0048] In some examples, the client device 120 provides the credentials directly to the access control device 110, such as after or before verifying that the LL pairing is successful. In such cases, the access control device 110 communicates the credentials with the server / controller 140. The server / controller 140 in FIG. 1 includes an authorization system 142. The server / controller 140, client device 120, and / or the access control device 110 can further include elements described with respect to FIGS. 4 and 5, such as a processor and memory, having instructions stored thereon, that when executedby the processor, cause the processor to control the functions of the server / controller 140, client device 120, and / or the access control device 110.

[0049] The server / controller 140 searches a list of credentials stored in the authorization system 142 to determine whether the received credentials match credentials from the list of authorized credentials for accessing a secure asset or resource (e.g., door or secure area) protected by the access control device 110. In response to determining that the received credentials are authorized to access the access control device 110, the server / controller 140 instructs the access control device 110 to perform an operation granting access for the client device 120 (e.g., instructing the access control device 110 to unlock a lock of a door). In another example, the client device 120 provides the credentials to the server / controller 140, such as using the shared secret key.

[0050] The server / controller 140 searches a list of credentials stored in the authorization system 142 to determine whether the received credentials match credentials from the list of authorized credentials for accessing a secure asset or resource (e.g., door or secure area) protected by the access control device 110. In response to determining that the received credentials are authorized to access the access control device 110, the server / controller 140 instructs the access control device 110 (associated with the received credentials and within a geographical distance of the client device 120) to perform an operation granting access to the client device 120 (e.g., instructing the access control device 110 to unlock a lock of a door).

[0051] In some examples, the client device 120 and the access control device 110 can initially establish an unsecure communication channel. Over this unsecure communication channel (e.g., prior to the client device 120 and the access control device 110 authenticating each other), the client device 120 and the access control device 110 can select between various symmetric static privacy keys based on a context being used for the application layer.

[0052] Once the appropriate static privacy key is selected, a random nonce can be used to generate a session privacy key. This session privacy key can be used to generate one or more one-time authorization codes or proofs that are combined or concatenated with one or more requests. The one or more one-time authorization codes or proofs are used by the recipient device to check the authenticity of the request before any semantic operations are performed in association with the one or more requests. The one or moreone-time authorization codes or proofs can be dynamically generated for each request that is generated to ensure that each request is uniquely authenticated by the recipient. After a certain request or certain sequence of requests are generated and exchanged in this manner, a secure channel is established at the application layer.

[0053] The random nonce or session privacy key can be used independently by the access control device 110 and the client device 120 to generate a second set of encryption keys for the physical LL. The physical LL can be paired using the second set of encryption keys that are generated OOB. Once the physical LL is successfully established, the access control device 110 can process the credentials received prior to successfully establishing the LL pairing or after successfully establishing the LL pairing to grant or deny access to the protected resource.

[0054] FIG. 2A illustrates an example diagram 200 of a flow representing LL secured authentication, according to some examples. As shown in the diagram 200, a client device 210 (e.g., corresponding to the client device 120) can generate or send a connection request 240 to an access control device 220 (e.g., corresponding to the access control device 110). The connection request 240 can be initiated in several ways. In some cases, the connection request 240 is initiated when the reader (e.g., the access control device 220) advertises its capabilities or availability wirelessly and the client device 210 (smartphone or credential device) initiates the connection request 240 to a centralized service associated with the access control device 220. In some cases, the client device 210 can advertise its presence wirelessly and the access control device 220 initiates the connection request 240 to the centralized service.

[0055] The client device 210 and the access control device 220 can perform various service discovery and registration for notifications 242 to derive a first set of keys 230 over the application layer protocol and the established BLE or Bluetooth connection. This first set of keys (e.g., LTKs) can include a set of static privacy keys or session keys associated with the application layer. The first set of keys can be different and specific for each BLE or Bluetooth connection that is established between the client device 210 and the access control device 220.

[0056] After establishing the first set of keys 230 over the BLE connection, the client device 210 can send credential information, such as transferring PACS data 244. The access control device 220 can receive the credential information and can store thecredential information in a temporary secured storage location. The access control device 220 and / or the client device 210 can send a request to perform OOB pairing 246. This request can be generated based on instructions contained in the application layer of the access control protocol. The client device 210 and the access control device 220 can obtain instructions from the access control protocol to generate a second set of keys 250 specific to the LL pairing of the physical LL connection. The second set of keys 250 can be identical for each of the client device 210 and the access control device 220 and may not be exchanged over the network to enhance security.

[0057] In some examples, the second set of keys 250 can be generated by processing a portion of the first set of keys 230 in combination with one or more random nonces. In some cases, the client device 210 and the access control device 220 can exchange a random nonce and can use that random nonce to independently generate the second set of keys 250. Once the second set of keys 250 is generated, one or more secure messages are exchanged at the physical LL between the client device 210 and the access control device 220 to perform OOB pairing 248. In some cases, an OOB pairing key is transferred at operation 247 and used to generate the second set of keys 250.

[0058] The access control device 220 and the client device 210 can determine whether the OOB pairing is successful. The access control device 220, in response to determining that the OOB pairing at the physical LL is successful, generates an instruction to retrieve the previously received credential information from the secure storage location. The access control device 220 can then release the credential information at operation 260 and provide the credential information at operation 262 for processing, such as by the access control device 220 and / or by a remote server. The processing of the credential information can generate a result indicating whether access to the protected resource is authorized for the credential information. In response to determining that the credential information is authorized to access the protected resource, the access control device 220 unlocks or provides access to the protected resource. Otherwise, the access control device 220 maintains the protected resource in a locked state.

[0059] FIG. 2B illustrates an example diagram 201 of a flow representing LL secured authentication, according to some examples. Several operations, shown in diagram 201 are similar to those shown in diagram 200. In diagram 201, the credential information is only sent by the client device 210 to the access control device 220 after verifying that thephysical LL pairing was successful. Specifically, as discussed above, the client device 210 can send a connection request 240 to the access control device 220. In response to that request, service discovery and registration for notifications 242 is performed and the first set of keys 230 are derived. The connection request 240 can be initiated in several ways. In some cases, the connection request 240 is initiated when the reader (e.g., the access control device 220) advertises its capabilities or availability wirelessly and the client device 210 (smartphone or credential device) initiates the connection request 240 to a centralized service associated with the access control device 220. In some cases, the client device 210 can advertise its presence wirelessly and the access control device 220 initiates the connection request 240 to the centralized service.

[0060] The client device 210 and / or the access control device 220 request OOB pairing at operation 280 (e.g., based on the instructions of the application layer protocol). The client device 210 and the access control device 220 perform physical LL pairing (e.g., Bluetooth pairing) at operation 282, such as using the second set of keys 250, which are derived from the first set of keys 230 and / or in response to a random nonce exchanged between the client device 210 and the access control device 220. In response to determining that the OOB pairing was successful at operation 290, the client device 210 transfers credential information at operation 283. The access control device 220 receives the credential information from the client device 210 and releases the credential information at operation 292 to grant or deny access to the protected resource.

[0061] FIG. 3 is a flowchart illustrating example process or method 300 or method of the access control system 100, according to some examples. The process or method 300 may be embodied in computer-readable instructions for execution by one or more processors such that the operations of the process or method 300 may be performed in part or in whole by the functional components of the system 100; accordingly, the process or method 300 is described below by way of example with reference thereto. However, in other examples, at least some of the operations of the process or method 300 may be deployed on various other hardware configurations. Some or all of the operations of process or method 300 can be in parallel, out of order, or entirely omitted.

[0062] At operation 301, the server / controller 140 (e.g., a PACS server) or the access control device 110 receives a request to establish a connection with a second device (e.g., the client device 120) to obtain access to a resource protected by the first device,with the connection being secured at an application layer by a first set of encryption keys, as discussed above.

[0063] At operation 302, the server / controller 140 and / or the access control device 110 determines whether a physical LL pairing with the client device 120 is successful, with the LL pairing being based on a second set of encryption keys that are separate from the first set of encryption keys, as discussed above.

[0064] At operation 303, the server / controller 140 and / or the access control device 110 and / or client device 120 selectively processes access control information in response to determining whether the physical LL pairing is successful, as discussed above.

[0065] FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating an example software architecture 406, which may be used in conjunction with various hardware architectures herein described. FIG. 4 is a non-limiting example of a software architecture and it will be appreciated that many other architectures may be implemented to facilitate the functionality described herein. The software architecture 406 may execute on hardware such as machine 500 of FIG. 5 that includes, among other things, processors 504, memory 514, and input / output (I / O) components 518. A representative hardware layer 452 is illustrated and can represent, for example, the machine 500 of FIG. 5. The representative hardware layer 452 includes a processing unit 454 having associated executable instructions 404. Executable instructions 404 represent the executable instructions of the software architecture 406, including implementation of the methods, components, and so forth described herein. The hardware layer 452 also includes memory and / or storage devices memory / storage 456, which also have executable instructions 404. The hardware layer 452 may also comprise other hardware 458. The software architecture 406 may be deployed in any one or more of the components shown in FIG. 1.

[0066] In the example architecture of FIG. 4, the software architecture 406 may be conceptualized as a stack of layers where each layer provides particular functionality. For example, the software architecture 406 may include layers such as an operating system 402, libraries 420, frameworks / middl eware 418, applications 416, and a presentation layer 414. Operationally, the applications 416 and / or other components within the layers may invoke API calls 408 through the software stack and receive messages 412 in response to the API calls 408. The layers illustrated are representative in nature and not all software architectures have all layers. For example, some mobile orspecial purpose operating systems may not provide a frameworks / middl eware 418, while others may provide such a layer. Other software architectures may include additional or different layers.

[0067] The operating system 402 may manage hardware resources and provide common services. The operating system 402 may include, for example, a kernel 422, services 424, and drivers 426. The kernel 422 may act as an abstraction layer between the hardware and the other software layers. For example, the kernel 422 may be responsible for memory management, processor management (e.g., scheduling), component management, networking, security settings, and so on. The services 424 may provide other common services for the other software layers. The drivers 426 are responsible for controlling or interfacing with the underlying hardware. For instance, the drivers 426 include display drivers, camera drivers, BLE drivers, UWB drivers, Bluetooth® drivers, flash memory drivers, serial communication drivers (e.g., Universal Serial Bus (USB) drivers), Wi-Fi® drivers, audio drivers, power management drivers, and so forth depending on the hardware configuration.

[0068] The libraries 420 provide a common infrastructure that is used by the applications 416 and / or other components and / or layers. The libraries 420 provide functionality that allows other software components to perform tasks in an easier fashion than to interface directly with the underlying operating system 402 functionality (e.g., kernel 422, services 424 and / or drivers 426). The libraries 420 may include system libraries 444 (e.g., C standard library) that may provide functions such as memory allocation functions, string manipulation functions, mathematical functions, and the like. In addition, the libraries 420 may include API libraries 446 such as media libraries (e.g., libraries to support presentation and manipulation of various media format such as MPREG4, H.264, MP3, AAC, AMR, JPG, PNG), graphics libraries (e.g, an OpenGL framework that may be used to render two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) in a graphic content on a display), database libraries (e.g., SQLite that may provide various relational database functions), web libraries (e.g., WebKit that may provide web browsing functionality), and the like. The libraries 420 may also include a wide variety of other libraries 448 to provide many other APIs to the applications 416 and other software components / devices.

[0069] The frameworks / middl eware 418 (also sometimes referred to as middleware) provide a higher-level common infrastructure that may be used by the applications 416 and / or other software components / devices. For example, the frameworks / middleware 418 may provide various graphic user interface functions, high-level resource management, high-level location services, and so forth. The frameworks / middleware 418 may provide a broad spectrum of other APIs that may be utilized by the applications 416 and / or other software components / devices, some of which may be specific to a particular operating system 402 or platform.

[0070] The applications 416 include built-in applications 438 and / or third-party applications 440. Examples of representative built-in applications 438 may include, but are not limited to, a contacts application, a browser application, a book reader application, a location application, a media application, a messaging application, and / or a game application. Third-party applications 440 may include an application developed using the ANDROID™ or IOS™ software development kit (SDK) by an entity other than the vendor of the particular platform, and may be mobile software running on a mobile operating system such as IOS™, ANDROID™, WINDOWS® Phone, or other mobile operating systems. The third-party applications 440 may invoke the API calls 408 provided by the mobile operating system (such as operating system 402) to facilitate functionality described herein.

[0071] The applications 416 may use built-in operating system functions (e.g., kernel 422, services 424, and / or drivers 426), libraries 420, and frameworks / middleware 418 to create user interfaces to interact with users of the system. Alternatively, or additionally, in some systems, interactions with a user may occur through a presentation layer, such as presentation layer 414. In these systems, the application / component "logic" can be separated from the aspects of the application / component that interact with a user.

[0072] FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating components of a machine 500, according to some examples, able to read instructions from a machine-readable medium (e.g., a machine-readable storage medium) and perform any one or more of the methodologies discussed herein. Specifically, FIG. 5 shows a diagrammatic representation of the machine 500 in the example form of a computer system, within which instructions 510 (e.g., software, a program, an application, an applet, an app, or other executable code)for causing the machine 500 to perform any one or more of the methodologies discussed herein may be executed.

[0073] As such, the instructions 510 may be used to implement devices or components described herein. The instructions 510 transform the general, non-programmed machine 500 into a particular machine 500, such as the client device 120, access control device 110, or server / controller 140, programmed to carry out the described and illustrated functions in the manner described. In alternative examples, the machine 500 operates as a standalone device or may be coupled (e.g., networked) to other machines. In a networked deployment, the machine 500 may operate in the capacity of a server machine or a client machine in a server-client network environment, or as a peer machine in a peer-to-peer (or distributed) network environment. The machine 500 may comprise, but not be limited to, a server computer, a client computer, a personal computer (PC), a tablet computer, a laptop computer, a netbook, a set-top box (STB), a personal digital assistant (PDA), an entertainment media system, a cellular telephone, a smart phone, a mobile device, a wearable device (e.g., a smart watch), a smart home device (e.g., a smart appliance), other smart devices, a web appliance, a network router, a network switch, a network bridge, or any machine capable of executing the instructions 510, sequentially or otherwise, that specify actions to be taken by machine 500. Further, while only a single machine 500 is illustrated, the term "machine" shall also be taken to include a collection of machines that individually or jointly execute the instructions 510 to perform any one or more of the methodologies discussed herein.

[0074] The machine 500 may include processors 504, memory / storage 506, and I / O components 518, which may be configured to communicate with each other such as via a bus 502. In an example, the processors 504 (e.g., a CPU, a reduced instruction set computing (RISC) processor, a complex instruction set computing (CISC) processor, a graphics processing unit (GPU), a digital signal processor (DSP), an ASIC, a radiofrequency integrated circuit (RFIC), another processor, or any suitable combination thereof) may include, for example, a processor 508 and a processor 512 that may execute the instructions 510. The term “processor” is intended to include multi-core processors 504 that may comprise two or more independent processors (sometimes referred to as “cores”) that may execute instructions contemporaneously. Although FIG. 5 shows multiple processors 504, the machine 500 may include a single processor with a singlecore, a single processor with multiple cores (e.g., a multi-core processor), multiple processors with a single core, multiple processors with multiple cores, or any combination thereof.

[0075] The memory / storage 506 may include a memory 514, such as a main memory or other memory storage, a database, and a storage unit 516, all accessible to the processors 504 such as via the bus 502. The storage unit 516 and memory 514 store the instructions 510 embodying any one or more of the methodologies or functions described herein. The instructions 510 may also reside, completely or partially, within the memory 514, within the storage unit 516, within at least one of the processors 504 (e.g., within the processor’s cache memory), or any suitable combination thereof, during execution thereof by the machine 500. Accordingly, the memory 514, the storage unit 516, and the memory of processors 504 are examples of machine-readable media.

[0076] The I / O components 518 may include a wide variety of components to receive input, provide output, produce output, transmit information, exchange information, capture measurements, and so on. The specific I / O components 518 that are included in a particular machine 500 will depend on the type of machine. For example, portable machines such as mobile phones will likely include a touch input device or other such input mechanisms, while a headless server machine will likely not include such a touch input device. It will be appreciated that the I / O components 518 may include many other components that are not shown in FIG. 5. The I / O components 518 are grouped according to functionality merely for simplifying the following discussion and the grouping is in no way limiting. In various examples, the I / O components 518 may include output components 526 and input components 528. The output components 526 may include visual components (e.g., a display such as a plasma display panel (PDP), a LED display, a LCD, a projector, or a cathode ray tube (CRT)), acoustic components (e.g., speakers), haptic components (e.g., a vibratory motor, resistance mechanisms), other signal generators, and so forth. The input components 528 may include alphanumeric input components (e.g., a keyboard, a touch screen configured to receive alphanumeric input, a photo-optical keyboard, or other alphanumeric input components), point-based input components (e.g., a mouse, a touchpad, a trackball, a joystick, a motion sensor, or other pointing instrument), tactile input components (e.g., a physical button, a touch screen that provides location and / or force of touches or touch gestures, orother tactile input components), audio input components (e.g., a microphone), and the like.

[0077] In further examples, the I / O components 518 may include biometric components 539, motion components 534, environmental components 536, or position components538 among a wide array of other components. For example, the biometric components539 may include components to detect expressions (e.g., hand expressions, facial expressions, vocal expressions, body gestures, or eye tracking), measure biosignals (e.g., blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, perspiration, or brain waves), identify a person (e.g., voice identification, retinal identification, facial identification, fingerprint identification, or electroencephalogram based identification), and the like. The motion components 534 may include acceleration sensor components (e.g., accelerometer), gravitation sensor components, rotation sensor components (e.g., gyroscope), and so forth. The environmental components 536 may include, for example, illumination sensor components (e.g., photometer), temperature sensor components (e.g., one or more thermometer that detect ambient temperature), humidity sensor components, pressure sensor components (e.g., barometer), acoustic sensor components (e.g., one or more microphones that detect background noise), proximity sensor components (e.g., infrared sensors that detect nearby objects), gas sensors (e.g., gas detection sensors to detection concentrations of hazardous gases for safety or to measure pollutants in the atmosphere), or other components that may provide indications, measurements, or signals corresponding to a surrounding physical environment. The position components 538 may include location sensor components (e.g., a GPS receiver component), altitude sensor components (e.g., altimeters or barometers that detect air pressure from which altitude may be derived), orientation sensor components (e.g., magnetometers), and the like.

[0078] Communication may be implemented using a wide variety of technologies. The I / O components 518 may include communication components 540 operable to couple the machine 500 to a network 537 or devices 529 via coupling 524 and coupling 522, respectively. For example, the communication components 540 may include a network interface component or other suitable device to interface with the network 537. In further examples, communication components 540 may include wired communication components, wireless communication components, cellular communication components, NFC components, Bluetooth® components (e.g., Bluetooth® Low Energy), Wi-Fi®components, and other communication components to provide communication via other modalities. The devices 529 may be another machine or any of a wide variety of peripheral devices (e.g., a peripheral device coupled via a USB).

[0079] Moreover, the communication components 540 may detect identifiers or include components operable to detect identifiers. For example, the communication components 540 may include RFID tag reader components, NFC smart tag detection components, optical reader components (e.g., an optical sensor to detect one-dimensional bar codes such as Universal Product Code (UPC) bar code, multi-dimensional bar codes such as Quick Response (QR) code, Aztec code, Data Matrix, Dataglyph, MaxiCode, PDF417, Ultra Code, UCC RSS-2D bar code, and other optical codes), or acoustic detection components (e.g., microphones to identify tagged audio signals). In addition, a variety of information may be derived via the communication components 540, such as location via IP geo-location, location via Wi-Fi® signal triangulation, location via detecting a NFC beacon signal that may indicate a particular location, and so forth.Glossary:

[0080] " CARRIER SIGNAL" in this context refers to any intangible medium that is capable of storing, encoding, or carrying transitory or non-transitory instructions for execution by the machine, and includes digital or analog communications signals or other intangible medium to facilitate communication of such instructions. Instructions may be transmitted or received over the network using a transitory or non-transitory transmission medium via a network interface device and using any one of a number of well-known transfer protocols.

[0081] " CLIENT DEVICE" in this context refers to any machine that interfaces to a communications network to obtain resources from one or more server systems or other client devices or that communicates directly with such other devices or server systems. A client device may be, but is not limited to, a mobile phone, desktop computer, laptop, PDA, smart phone, tablet, ultrabook, netbook, laptop, multi-processor system, microprocessor-based or programmable consumer electronics, game console, STB, or any other communication device that a user may use to access a network.

[0082] "COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK" in this context refers to one or more portions of a network that may be an ad hoc network, an intranet, an extranet, a VPN, aLAN, a BLE network, a UWB network, a WLAN, a WAN, a WWAN, a MAN, the Internet, a portion of the Internet, a portion of the PSTN, a POTS network, a cellular telephone network, a wireless network, a Wi-Fi® network, another type of network, or a combination of two or more such networks. For example, a network or a portion of a network may include a wireless or cellular network and the coupling may be a CDMA connection, a GSM connection, or other type of cellular or wireless coupling. In this example, the coupling may implement any of a variety of types of data transfer technology, such as IxRTT, EVDO technology, GPRS technology, EDGE technology, 3 GPP including 3G, 4G networks, UMTS, HSPA, WiMAX, LTE standard, others defined by various standard setting organizations, other long range protocols, or other data transfer technology.

[0083] "MACHINE -RE AD ABLE MEDIUM" in this context refers to a component, device, or other tangible media able to store instructions and data temporarily or permanently and may include, but is not limited to, RAM, ROM, buffer memory, flash memory, optical media, magnetic media, cache memory, other types of storage (e.g., Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)) and / or any suitable combination thereof. The term "machine-readable medium" should be taken to include a single medium or multiple media (e.g., a centralized or distributed database, or associated caches and servers) able to store instructions. The term "machine-readable medium" shall also be taken to include any medium, or combination of multiple media, that is capable of storing instructions (e.g., code) for execution by a machine, such that the instructions, when executed by one or more processors of the machine, cause the machine to perform any one or more of the methodologies described herein.Accordingly, a "machine-readable medium" refers to a single storage apparatus or device, as well as "cloud-based" storage systems or storage networks that include multiple storage apparatus or devices. The term "machine-readable medium" excludes signals per se.

[0084] " COMPONENT" in this context refers to a device, physical entity, or logic having boundaries defined by function or subroutine calls, branch points, APIs, or other technologies that provide for the partitioning or modularization of particular processing or control functions. Components may be combined via their interfaces with other components to carry out a machine process. A component may be a packaged functionalhardware unit designed for use with other components and a part of a program that usually performs a particular function of related functions. Components may constitute either software components (e.g., code embodied on a machine-readable medium) or hardware components. A "hardware component" is a tangible unit capable of performing certain operations and may be configured or arranged in a certain physical manner. In various examples, one or more computer systems (e.g., a standalone computer system, a client computer system, or a server computer system) or one or more hardware components of a computer system (e.g., a processor or a group of processors) may be configured by software (e.g., an application or application portion) as a hardware component that operates to perform certain operations as described herein.

[0085] A hardware component may also be implemented mechanically, electronically, or any suitable combination thereof. For example, a hardware component may include dedicated circuitry or logic that is permanently configured to perform certain operations. A hardware component may be a special-purpose processor, such as a FPGA or an ASIC. A hardware component may also include programmable logic or circuitry that is temporarily configured by software to perform certain operations. For example, a hardware component may include software executed by a general-purpose processor or other programmable processor. Once configured by such software, hardware components become specific machines (or specific components of a machine) uniquely tailored to perform the configured functions and are no longer general-purpose processors. It will be appreciated that the decision to implement a hardware component mechanically, in dedicated and permanently configured circuitry, or in temporarily configured circuitry (e.g., configured by software) may be driven by cost and time considerations.Accordingly, the phrase "hardware component"(or "hardware-implemented component") should be understood to encompass a tangible entity, be that an entity that is physically constructed, permanently configured (e.g., hardwired), or temporarily configured (e.g., programmed) to operate in a certain manner or to perform certain operations described herein. Considering examples in which hardware components are temporarily configured (e.g., programmed), each of the hardware components need not be configured or instantiated at any one instance in time. For example, where a hardware component comprises a general-purpose processor configured by software to become a specialpurpose processor, the general-purpose processor may be configured as respectively different special-purpose processors (e.g., comprising different hardware components) atdifferent times. Software accordingly configures a particular processor or processors, for example, to constitute a particular hardware component at one instance of time and to constitute a different hardware component at a different instance of time.

[0086] Hardware components can provide information to, and receive information from, other hardware components. Accordingly, the described hardware components may be regarded as being communicatively coupled. Where multiple hardware components exist contemporaneously, communications may be achieved through signal transmission (e.g., over appropriate circuits and buses) between or among two or more of the hardware components. In examples in which multiple hardware components are configured or instantiated at different times, communications between such hardware components may be achieved, for example, through the storage and retrieval of information in memory structures to which the multiple hardware components have access. For example, one hardware component may perform an operation and store the output of that operation in a memory device to which it is communicatively coupled. A further hardware component may then, at a later time, access the memory device to retrieve and process the stored output.

[0087] Hardware components may also initiate communications with input or output devices and can operate on a resource (e.g., a collection of information). The various operations of example methods described herein may be performed, at least partially, by one or more processors that are temporarily configured (e.g., by software) or permanently configured to perform the relevant operations. Whether temporarily or permanently configured, such processors may constitute processor-implemented components that operate to perform one or more operations or functions described herein. As used herein, "processor-implemented component" refers to a hardware component implemented using one or more processors. Similarly, the methods described herein may be at least partially processor-implemented, with a particular processor or processors being an example of hardware. For example, at least some of the operations of a method may be performed by one or more processors or processor-implemented components. Moreover, the one or more processors may also operate to support performance of the relevant operations in a "cloud computing" environment or as a "software as a service" (SaaS). For example, at least some of the operations may be performed by a group of computers (as examples of machines including processors),with these operations being accessible via a network (e.g., the Internet) and via one or more appropriate interfaces (e.g., an API). The performance of certain of the operations may be distributed among the processors, not only residing within a single machine, but deployed across a number of machines. In some examples, the processors or processor- implemented components may be located in a single geographic location (e.g., within a home environment, an office environment, or a server farm). In other examples, the processors or processor-implemented components may be distributed across a number of geographic locations.

[0088] " PROCESSOR" in this context refers to any circuit or virtual circuit (a physical circuit emulated by logic executing on an actual processor) that manipulates data values according to control signals (e.g., "commands," "op codes," "machine code," etc.) and which produces corresponding output signals that are applied to operate a machine. A processor may, for example, be a CPU, a RISC processor, a CISC processor, a GPU, a DSP, an ASIC, a RFIC, or any combination thereof. A processor may further be a multicore processor having two or more independent processors (sometimes referred to as "cores") that may execute instructions contemporaneously.

[0089] Changes and modifications may be made to the disclosed examples without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. These and other changes or modifications are intended to be included within the scope of the present disclosure, as expressed in the following claims.

[0090] The Abstract of the Disclosure is provided to allow the reader to quickly ascertain the nature of the technical disclosure. It is submitted with the understanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit the scope or meaning of the claims. In addition, in the foregoing Detailed Description, it can be seen that various features are grouped together in a single example for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure. This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the claimed examples require more features than are expressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive subject matter may lie in less than all features of a single disclosed example. Thus, the following claims are hereby incorporated into the Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separate example.

Claims

WHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. A method comprising: receiving, by a first device, a request to establish a connection with a second device to obtain access to a resource protected by the first device, the connection being secured at an application layer by a first set of encryption keys; determining whether a physical link layer (LL) pairing between the first device and the second device is successful, the LL pairing being based on a second set of encryption keys that are separate from the first set of encryption keys; and selectively processing access control information in response to determining whether the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the first device is associated with a physical access control system (PACS) that physically secures the resource; and wherein the access control information comprises a digital credential for obtaining access to the resource.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the second set of encryption keys is derived out of band (OOB) relative to the first set of encryption keys.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the first device and the second device derive the second set of encryption keys which comprise identical encryption keys using registration information exchanged prior to receiving the request.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein the second set of encryption keys comprise one or more long term keys (LTKs) associated with a Bluetooth protocol.

6. The method of claim 5, wherein the connection established between the first device and the second device comprises a Bluetooth connection.

7. The method of claim 6, wherein determining whether the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful comprises: exchanging the one or more LTKs between the first device and the second device;establishing a LL security over the Bluetooth connection, the establishing of the LL security comprising exchanging one or more LL packets each comprising an authentication cryptogram; and verifying authenticity of the one or more LL packets to determine that the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.

8. The method of claim 6, wherein determining whether the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful comprises: causing the first device to perform an application layer command and response exchange with the second device to verify that the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.

9. The method of claim 6, further comprising: establishing a different set of physical LL keys comprising the second set of encryption keys for each connection between the first device and the second device.

10. The method of claim 6, further comprising: generating one or more session keys based on the first set of keys for the first device and the second device; and using the one or more session keys to enable the first device and the second device to independently derive the second set of keys.

11. The method of claim 6, further comprising: generating a random string of data by the first device; sending the random string of data to the second device; and using the random string of data to enable the first device and the second device to independently derive the second set of keys.

12. The method of claim 6, further comprising: receiving, by the first device, a random string of data from the second device; and using the random string of data to enable the first device and the second device to independently derive the second set of keys.

13. The method of claim 1, further comprising: receiving, by the first device, the access control information from the second device over the application layer of the connection; temporarily storing the access control information in a memory of the first device; after receiving the access control information, performing an out-of-band (OOB) pairing on the physical LL based on the second set of encryption keys; and in response to determining that the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful, releasing the access control information, that was previously received from the first device, from the memory to control access to the resource.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein the access control information comprises a credential, further comprising: enabling access to the resource in response to determining, based on processing the access control information, that the credential is authorized to access the resource.

15. The method of claim 1, further comprising: performing an out-of-band (OOB) pairing on the physical LL based on the second set of encryption keys; and in response to determining that the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful, transmitting, by the first device to the second device, a request for the access control information.

16. The method of claim 15, further comprising: receiving, by the first device, the access control information from the second device over the application layer of the connection in response to transmitting the request for the access control information; and controlling access to the resource in response to determining that the access control information is authorized to access the resource.

17. The method of claim 1, further comprising: transmitting the access control information to a remote server from the first device in response to determining that the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.

18. A system comprising: one or more processors coupled to a memory comprising non-transitory computer instructions that, when executed by the one or more processors, cause the one or more processors to perform operations comprising: receiving, by a first device, a request to establish a connection with a second device to obtain access to a resource protected by the first device, the connection being secured at an application layer by a first set of encryption keys; determining whether a physical link layer (LL) pairing between the first device and the second device is successful, the LL pairing being based on a second set of encryption keys that are separate from the first set of encryption keys; and selectively processing access control information in response to determining whether the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.

19. The system of claim 18, wherein the first device is associated with a physical access control system (PACS) that physical secures the resource, and wherein the access control information comprises a digital credential for obtaining access to the resource.

20. A non-transitory computer readable medium comprising non-transitory computer- readable instructions that, when executed by one or more processors, configure the one or more processors to perform operations comprising: receiving, by a first device, a request to establish a connection with a second device to obtain access to a resource protected by the first device, the connection being secured at an application layer by a first set of encryption keys; determining whether a physical link layer (LL) pairing between the first device and the second device is successful, the LL pairing being based on a second set of encryption keys that are separate from the first set of encryption keys; and selectively processing access control information in response to determining whether the physical LL pairing between the first device and the second device is successful.

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