An identifier, for example, an identifier of
a domain and / or a host of the domain (e.g., a
fully qualified domain name (FQDN), etc.), such as a service management device (e.g., a
server, a
web server, a computing device, a web host device, a webpage, etc.), may be modified (e.g., hashed, encrypted, etc.) by a network device (e.g., a
server,
a domain name
system (DNS)
server, a DNS over
hypertext transfer protocol secure (HTTPS) server / gateway (DoH server), DNS over
Transport Layer Security (TLS) server / gateway (DoT server), a
network management device, a computing device, etc.), sent to a
user device (e.g., a
client device, a
smart device, a
mobile device, a content
output device, a computing device, a
web browser, a
search engine, etc.), and reused by the
user device to request a service (e.g., a
web service, a webpage, a file, content, a content item, etc.).