The present invention provides methods for identifying targets of a
drug in a
cell by comparing (i) the effects of the
drug on a wild-type
cell, (ii) the effects on a wild-type
cell of modifications to a putative target of the
drug, and (iii) the effects of the drug on a wild-type cell which has had the putative target modified of the drug. In various embodiments, the effects on the cell can be determined by measuring
gene expression,
protein abundances,
protein activities, or a combination of such measurements. In various embodiments, modifications to a putative target in the cell can be made by modifications to the genes encoding the target, modification to abundances of RNAs encoding the target, modifications to abundances of target proteins, or modifications to activities of the target proteins. The present invention also provides methods for
drug development based on the methods for identifying drug targets.