Methods of detecting biomarkers in a blood sample obtained from a human subject include detecting an erythrocyte-bound C4d (EC4d) marker, a B-
lymphocyte-bound C4d (BC4d) marker, and an anti-nuclear
antibody (ANA) in the blood sample; and detecting a level of double-stranded
DNA antibody in the blood sample, wherein the human subject is negative for
systemic lupus erythematosus based on the level of double-stranded
DNA antibody. The methods optionally further include determining a
systemic lupus erythematosus risk
score by: (a) adjusting the level of EC4d marker by
a weighting coefficient to produce a
weighted score for EC4d marker; (b) adjusting the level of BC4d marker by
a weighting coefficient to produce a
weighted score for BC4d marker; (c) adjusting the level of ANA by
a weighting coefficient to produce a
weighted score for ANA; and (d) combining the weighted
score for EC4d marker, the weighted
score for BC4d marker, and the weighted score for ANA to generate the
systemic lupus erythematosus risk score; wherein the
systemic lupus erythematosus risk score does not include a score for double-stranded
DNA antibody.