Provided are modified coffee and / or cacao, and / or coffee-substitute and / or cacao / chocolate-substitute compositions, and methods of making same, comprising cross-Maillardized substrate carrier materials (e.g.,
plant materials, etc.), or non-cross-Maillardized carrier materials, having cross-Maillardized reaction products providing for improved and / or more organoleptically accurate coffee-substitute or cacao / chocolate-substitute compositions. These coffee or cacao / chocolate, and / or coffee-substitute and / or cacao / chocolate-substitute compositions, comprise extracts, kernels, grounds, powders beverages, concentrates, flavorings, etc., based thereon, with or preferably without coffee or cacao beans. The methods comprise contacting a substrate
carrier material, having endogenous Maillard-
reactive nitrogen and / or
carbohydrate constituents, with an exogenous Maillard
reagent comprising exogenous Maillard-
reactive nitrogen and / or
carbohydrate constituents, wherein the exogenous Maillard
reagent comprises elevated levels of e.g.,
leucine, to provide conditioned substrate carrier materials, for reacting to produce cross-Maillardized products. Cross-Maillard-primed substrate carrier materials, are provided, along with regenerated spent coffee and non-
coffee grounds. Modified cocoa, chocolate and / or chocolate-substitute compositions (e.g., bars, chips, etc.) are also provided.