The invention relates to a quick coring drilling system without a marine riser and method based on circulating drilling fluid. The quick coring drilling system comprises a mud circulation system and acoring drilling system body, wherein the coring drilling system body comprises a drill pipe, a spearhead, a driving device, a hydraulic down-hole hammer, a core pipe and a drill bit which are sequentially connected from top to bottom inside the drill pipe; the mud circulation system comprises a return cone, a recovery pump, a mud tank, a mud pump and a conveying pipeline group; the conveying pipeline group comprises a first conveying pipeline, a second conveying pipeline and a third conveying pipeline; and the mud tank, mud pump, the drill pipe, the return cone and the conveying pipeline group are in communication with each other to form a mud circulation channel. The quick coring drilling system does not use the marine riser, the time for lowering a pipe column is reduced, the emergencyrelease speed is accelerated, the connection can be quickly performed through the return cone, time and cost are saved, and the risk of wellhead instability is reduced.